Factors Determining the Agreement between Aerobic Threshold and Point of Maximal Fat Oxidation: Follow-Up on a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Association

Regular exercise at the intensity matching maximal fat oxidation (FATmax) has been proposed as a key element in both athletes and clinical populations when aiming to enhance the body’s ability to oxidize fat. In order to allow a more standardized and tailored training approach, the connection between FATmax and the individual aerobic thresholds (AerT) has been examined. Although recent findings strongly suggest that a relationship exists between these two intensities, correlation alone is not sufficient to confirm that the intensities necessarily coincide and that the error between the two measures is small. Thus, this systematic review and meta-analysis aim to examine the agreement levels between the exercise intensities matching FATmax and AerT by pooling limits of agreement in a function of three parameters: (i) the average difference, (ii) the average within-study variation, and (iii) the variation in bias across studies, and to examine the influence of clinical and methodological inter- and intra-study differences on agreement levels. This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42021239351) and ClinicalTrials (NCT03789045). PubMed and Google Scholar were searched for studies examining FATmax and AerT connection. Overall, 12 studies with forty-five effect sizes and a total of 774 subjects fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The ROBIS tool for risk of bias assessment was used to determine the quality of included studies. In conclusion, the overall 95% limits of agreement of the differences between FATmax and AerT exercise intensities were larger than the a priori determined acceptable agreement due to the large variance caused by clinical and methodological differences among the studies. Therefore, we recommend that future studies follow a strict standardization of data collection and analysis of FATmax- and AerT-related outcomes

Proprioceptive training and sports performance

One of the current trends in the field of sports training concerns the integration into training programs of exercises defined as "proprioceptive", which also include balance exercises, used to optimize performance, prevention or recovery from injuries. After introducing and describing the main characteristics of proprioceptive training in sports, the present review aims to set out and analyse the various flaws in this type of training as it is commonly practiced, in order to lay the groundwork for future improvements in proprioceptive training. Our research highlights that it is common practice to combine proprioceptive training with training on unstable surfaces, generally meaning the same for both situations. Such practices are indicative of the confusion surrounding the concepts of proprioception and balance. Indeed, until these two concepts and their respective performance benefits are clearly differentiated, it will be difficult to move beyond the controversy surrounding proprioceptive training and hence. to make advances in the field of proprioceptive training research. In conclusion, therefore, against the comforting theories that accompany the use of proprioceptive training in relation to the improvement of performance, unfortunately there is a literature that shows many variables not yet considered or treated in an approximate way

Changes in body composition and psychological profile when overcoming four Everesting bike challenges

Problem Statement: During ultra-endurance races, given the long duration of the competitions, athletes can experience variations in body composition and moods. These elements can greatly affect the athlete's performance. Purpose: To evaluate the effects of an ultra-endurance race (4 consecutive Everesting Bike Challenges) on the body composition and moods of an adult athlete. Material and Methods: A well-trained amateur cyclist (male; 46 years; 64 kg; 1.69 cm; BMI 22.4 kg/m2) was monitored during the 4 Everesting Bike Challenges. This test is an ultra-endurance challenge that involves overcoming 8848 meters by climbing a single peak several times. The changes in body composition and hydration, calculated by bio-impedentiometry, and the changes in moods, obtained by administering the Profile of Mood States (POMS), in addition to Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and Visual Analogic Scale, were measured at the beginning, during or at the end of each Everesting passed. Results: The resting heart rate was 42 beats per minute. The estimated theoretical maximal heart rate was 174 bpm. The monitored athlete overcame the 4 Everesting Bike Challenges covering a total of 904.79 km. The time taken to complete the race was 113 hours and 18 minutes. The total height difference exceeded was 35395 m. During the race the athlete pedaled with an average heart rate of 97 bpm. Body mass dropped from 64.0 to 63.1 kg between the start and end of the test. Wide variations in the athlete's Vigor (T0=16:T5=6), fatigue (T0=0:T5=6) and Sleep quality (T0=100:T5= ≈0) were found during the competition. Regarding the Rating of Perceived Exertion scale, the results obtained indicate a medium-low value (RP=3). Conclusion: The results of this study showed negligible reduction in body mass in the athlete who performed an ultra-endurance challenge. During and at the end of the climbing challenge, a significant reduction in Vigor and an important increase in Fatigue levels was highlighted, as well as a very evident reduction in Sleep quality. From the analysis of the RPE scale, medium-low values emerge at the end of each EB

The effect of slackline training on balance performance in healthy male children

Slackline has been proposed as a challenging and motivating tool for balance training. However, the transferability of balance performances among different balance tasks has been questioned. This study aimed to assess if slackline training affects dynamic and static balance performances on stable and unstable surfaces. Eighteen healthy males (8 to 14 years) were randomly assigned to an experimental or control group. For six weeks, both groups performed several supervised sports activities (2-hour sessions, 3 sessions per week). Additionally, the experimental group underwent a slackline-based balance training (1-hour sessions, 3 sessions per week). The dynamic and static balance were tested before and after the interventions using the Bass test (BASS) and the Stork stand test (SST), respectively. Landing (BASSlanding) and balance (BASSbalance) components of the dynamic balance were evaluated, while the static balance was assessed with eyes open (SSTopen) and closed (SSTclosed) on a stable surface, and with eyes open on an air cushion (SSTac). Two-way mixed-design ANOVAs revealed no interaction effect between time and group allocation in BASSlanding (p=0.791), BASSbalance (p=0.641), and right leg SSTopen (p=0.177), SSTclosed (p=0.076) and SSTac (p=0.039), and left leg SSTopen (p=0.100) and SSTclosed (p=0.032). There was a significant interaction on left leg SSTac (p=0.004), showing higher improvements over time in the experimental (mean improvement=4.5 seconds, p<0.001) compared to the control group (mean improvement=0.9 seconds, p=0.236). In conclusion, slackline balance training yielded no or negligible improvements on dynamic balance performances, whereas the improvements seemed higher on static balance, especially when measured on an unstable surface

The effect of physical activity on the perception of body image and well-being during aging

Problem Statement: Physical activity levels have been positively associated with mental and physical wellbeing. Nevertheless, associations between physical activity levels, which decrease with aging, and body image perception and indices of psycho-physical well-being have never been studied in adult and elderly subjects as a function of aging. Approach: This observational study was carried out in several provinces and regions of Italy. Information was collected from 192 men and 260 women between 50 and 98 years using a questionnaire on place of residence, physical activity level, perceived well-being and body image. Purpose: This study aimed to assess the influence of the level of physical activity on perceptions of body image and well-being in adult and elderly subjects. Results: Physical activity levels were positively associated with body image perception. Interactions between physical activity levels and the other investigated variables showed no significant effect on body image. Hence, the main effect of physical activity on body image does not vary according to the subject’s age, place of residence (rural or urban), kind of job (active or sedentary) or educational level. The well-being index was not significantly associated with either physical activity levels or the other variables investigated in this study. Conclusions: Physical activity levels are positively correlated with the body image perception, and high levels of physical activity are associated with more accurate perceptions of body image. The effect of physical activity is not influenced by different individual characteristics; hence, increasing levels of physical activity could improve body image perception across a broad range of subjects. On the other hand, the well-being index was not influenced by either physical activity levels or the other characteristics examined in this investigation. Additional experimental studies are needed to develop a specific intervention to improve the well-being and body image perception in adults and elderly subjects

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Association and Differences between Aerobic Threshold and Point of Optimal Fat Oxidation

Over the past two decades, scientists have attempted to evaluate whether the point of maximal fat oxidation (FATmax) and the aerobic threshold (AerT) are connected. The existence of such a relationship would allow a more tailored training approach for athletes while improving the efficacy of individualized exercise prescriptions when treating numerous health-related issues. However, studies have reported conflicting results, and this issue remains unresolved. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed: (i) to examine the strength of the association between FATmax and AerT by using the effect size (ES) of correlation coefficient (r) and standardized mean difference (SMD); (ii) to identify potential moderators and their influence on ES variability. This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42021239351) and ClinicalTrials (NCT03789045). PubMed and Google Scholar were searched and fourteen articles, consisting of overall 35 ES for r and 26 ES for SMD were included. Obtained ESs were analyzed using a multilevel random-effects meta-analysis. Our results support the presence of a significant association between FATmax and AerT exercise intensities. In conclusion, due to the large ES variance caused by clinical and methodological differences among the studies, we recommend that future studies follow strict standardization of data collection and analysis of FATmax and AerT-related outcomes

Effect of steady-state aerobic exercise intensity and duration on the relationship between reserves of heart rate and oxygen uptake

Background. The percentages of heart rate (%HRR) or oxygen uptake (%V̇O2R) reserve are used interchangeably for prescribing aerobic exercise intensity due to their assumed 1:1 relationship, although its validity is debated. This study aimed to assess if %HRR and %V̇O2R show a 1:1 relationship during steady-state exercise (SSE) and if exercise intensity and duration affect their relationship. Methods. Eight physically active males (age 22.6±1.2 years) were enrolled. Pre-exercise and maximal HR and V̇O2 were assessed on the first day. In the following 4 days, different SSEs were performed (running) combining the following randomly assigned durations and intensities: 15 min, 45 min, 60% HRR, 80% HRR. Post-exercise maximal HR and V̇O2 were assessed after each SSE. Using pre-exercise and post-exercise maximal values, the average HR and V̇O2 of the last 5 min of each SSE were converted into percentages of the reserves (%RES), which were computed in a 3-way RM-ANOVA (α=0.05) to assess if they were affected by the prescription parameter (HRR or V̇O2R), exercise intensity (60% or 80% HRR), and duration (15 or 45 min). Results. The %RES values were not affected by the prescription parameter (p=0.056) or its interactions with intensity (p=0.319) or duration and intensity (p=0.117), while parameter and duration interaction was significant (p=0.009). %HRRs and %V̇O2Rs did not differ in the 15-min SSEs (mean difference [MD]=0.7 percentage points, p=0.717), whereas %HRR was higher than %V̇O2R in the 45-min SSEs (MD=6.7 percentage points, p=0.009). Conclusion. SSE duration affects the %HRR-%V̇O2R relationship, with %HRRs higher than %V̇O2Rs in SSEs of longer duration

Effect of a 16-month exercise training program on functional capacities in a centenarian male master athlete: A case study

The effects of exercise training have never been investigated in centenarians. This single-subject research study aimed to assess the effects of a structured training protocol on functional capacities in a centenarian master athlete. A 99.5 years old male subject participated in the study. Before and after a 16-month training intervention the participant underwent a test battery for flexibility (YMCA sit and reach), balance (single leg stance), upper limb strength (hand grip and pinch strength), and lower limb power (counter movement jump) and muscular endurance (horizontal leg press with 85 kg load). After training, sit and reach (-3 cm) and counter movement jump (-0.5 cm) scores decreased, whereas single leg stance (+1.3 s), left hand grip (+2.0 kg), right hand pinch (+0.5 kg), and horizontal leg press (+2 repetitions) scores increased. Right hand grip strength and left-hand pinch strength did not change after training. When pre- and post-training scores were compared to gender-matched normative values, flexibility resulted well below average, maybe because of a relatively broad age category (>65 years). When more specific age categories were available, the participant's balance resulted slightly below average (age category 80-99 years) and upper limb strength above average (age category >85 years). No normative values were found for lower limb power and muscular endurance. In conclusion, this study highlights that structured exercise training may play a role in maintaining – and even in increasing – functional capacities in the oldest old age

Il talento nella “mente” dell’atleta di resistenza. Utilizzo del modello SFERA nella valutazione della preparazione mentale del ciclista

In endurance sports such as cycling, the preparation and mental predisposition of the athlete are essential to overcomeand go beyond the fatigue and pain that are inalienable from the sport itself. Therefore, the mental componentis correlated not only with the performances during the competitions, but also with the ability to train at best.Consequently, the mental component seems to be essential for the athlete’s talent, which suggests a strong correlationbetween the two parameters. Recently, the SFERA mental training model is used in some endurance sports.The observational study aims to assess whether in 30 non-professional cyclists (16-21 years) the factors of theSFERA (i.e., synchronization, strengths, energy, rhythm and activation) are in balance. The psychological componentswere evaluated by means of a specific questionnaire (SFERA-Q).Differences were found among the several factors within the SFERA. The rhythm is the dominant factor, having thehighest values, while the synchronization and activation have the lowest values among the factors of the SFERA.In conclusion, this study showed that, in young non-professional cyclists, there was no optimal mental conditionfor achieving maximal performance, which makes us assume that a psychological preparation aimed at rebalancingthose factors can lead to an optimal mental state and, consequently, to better performances.Negli sport di resistenza come il ciclismo la preparazione e predisposizione mentale dell’atleta è essenziale persuperare e andare oltre la fatica e dolore che sono inalienabili dallo sport stesso. Quindi la componente mentaleè correlata non solo con le prestazioni durante le competizioni, ma anche con la capacità di allenarsi al meglio. Diconseguenza la componente mentale sembra essere imprescindibile dal talento dell’atleta, il che suggerisce unaforte correlazione tra i due parametri.Negli ultimi anni il modello di allenamento mentale SFERA viene utilizzato in alcuni sport di resistenza.Lo studio, di natura osservazionale, ha come obiettivo di valutare se in 30 ciclisti non professionisti (16-21 anni) ifattori della SFERA (i.e., sincronia, punti di forza, energia, ritmo e attivazione) sono in equilibrio tra loro. Le variecomponenti psicologiche sono state valutate tramite uno specifico questionario (SFERA-Q).Sono emerse differenze tra i vari fattori all’interno della SFERA. Il ritmo risulta il fattore dominante, con i valori piùelevati, mentre la sincronia e attivazione presentano valori minori tra i fattori della SFERA.In conclusione, questo studio ha mostrato che, in giovani ciclisti non professionisti, non è presente una condizionementale ottimale ai fini del raggiungimento delle massime prestazioni. Questo ci fa presupporre che unapreparazione psico-pedagogica mirata al riequilibro tra i vari fattori possa portare ad uno stato mentale ottimalee, di conseguenza a prestazioni migliori

Discontinuously supervised aerobic training vs. physical activity promotion in the self-management of type 2 diabetes in older Italian patients: design and methods of the 'TRIPL-A' randomized controlled trial

Physical activity (PA) has health benefits for people with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Indeed, regular PA is considered an important part of any T2D management plan, yet most patients adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Exercise referral schemes (ERS) have the potential to effectively promote physical activity among T2D patients, and their effectiveness may be enhanced when they are supported by computer-based technologies. The 'TRIPL-A' study (i.e., a TRIal to promote PhysicaL Activity among patients in the young-old age affected by T2D) aims to assess if realizing an innovative ERS, based on a strong partnership among general practitioners, specialist physicians, exercise specialists, and patients, and supported by a web-based application (WBA), can effectively lead sedentary older T2D patients to adopt an active lifestyle