Effects of VEGF-A165b and SRPK1 inhibition on pain behaviour, cyclooxygenase expression and glial activation in the CNS in a model of osteoarthritis

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common musculoskeletal disease worldwide and a major cause of chronic pain. Treatment of OA pain is still suboptimal due to limited efficacy and considerable side effects of available analgesics. Pain in OA has a significant central component. Cyclooxygenases (COXs) and glial cells in the spinal cord and the periaqueductal gray (PAG) play a significant role in central sensitisation and pain modulation. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) is a key molecule in normal and pathological angiogenesis. Serine arginine protein kinase 1 (SRPK1), which phosphorylates serine arginine splice factor 1 (SRSP1), controls VEGF gene alternative splicing. This results in two splice variants; VEGF-A165a, which is pro-angiogenic and pro-nociceptive, and anti-angiogenic VEGF-A165b, which showed anti-nociceptive effects in models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. Objective: This thesis investigated changes in COX expression and glial activation in the spinal cord and the PAG in the monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) model of OA. It also addressed the effects of VEGF-A165b and SRPK1 inhibitor SPHINX-31 on pain behaviour and joint pathology, as well as COX expression and glial activation in the spinal cord and the PAG in the same model. Hypothesis: VEGF-A165b and SPHINX-31 can prevent and/or reverse enhanced pain behaviour in the MIA model of OA, through involvement of spinal glial cells and COXs in the PAG and spinal cord. Vascular-astrocyte association in the PAG is enhanced in the MIA model of OA, and this effect is reversed by administration of SPHINX-31. Methods: Rats received an intra-articular injection of MIA (1 mg) in the knee. In one study, animals were treated with VEGF-A165b (i.p. 20 ng/g body weight twice weekly) on days 0-13 (VEGF(d0-13) group) or days 14-28 (VEGF(d14-28) group) after MIA injection; in another study, rats received SPHINX-31 (i.p. 0.8 µg/g body weight twice weekly; (MIA/SPHINX group)) for 19 days after induction of the model. Pain behaviour was monitored throughout the studies, at the end of which (day 28) tissues were collected for the assessment of joint histopathology and the evaluation of spinal COX-2 mRNA expression by PCR. In addition, immunofluorescence (IF) was used to assess COX-2 expression and glial activation in the spinal cord, as well as astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the PAG. Results: VEGF-A165b significantly attenuated weight bearing asymmetry (%) in MIA rats on day 28 (29.58 ± 1.803 in MIA/VEGF(d0-13) group vs. 22.95 ± 2.088 in MIA/PBS group, p<0.01; 29.23 ± 1.49 in VEGF(d14-28) vs. 22.95 ± 2.088 in MIA/PBS, p<0.05). VEGF-A165b reversed mechanical withdrawal thresholds to the naïve level, but without reaching statistical significance. No significant changes in knee joint pathology were observed in VEGF-A165b treated MIA rats compared to the MIA/PBS counterparts. In the MIA/VEGF(d0-13) group, contralateral deep laminae of the dorsal horn had a higher percentage (%) of non-neuronal cells expressing COX-2 than the corresponding superficial laminae (3.26 ±1.16 vs 1.12 ± 0.43, p<0.05), while no difference was observed in the MIA/PBS group. Administration of VEGF-A165b did not significantly affect spinal microglia and astrocyte activation, nor COX-2 expression in the PAG. SPHINX-31 had no significant effects on pain behaviour, joint pathology or spinal COX-2 expression in the MIA model of OA. On the other hand, MIA/SPHINX group exhibited a higher activation of spinal microglia than MIA controls (% of CD11b +ve cells in MIA/SPHINX-31 vs MIA/vehicle groups: 6.36 ± 0.89 vs 1.72 ± 0.38, p<0.01). In addition, SPHINX-31 significantly increased astrocyte activation in the ipsilateral dorsolateral (DL) PAG relative to corresponding ventrolateral (VL) PAG (GFAP IF intensity: 12.89 ± 1.52 vs 8.46 ± 0.84, p<0.05), and it increased vascular-astrocyte association (%) in the contralateral DL PAG relative to corresponding VL PAG (70.35 ± 7.68 vs 38.92 ± 8.19, p<0.05). Interestingly, naïve rats had a significantly higher astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the VL PAG than in DL PAG. Conclusions: VEGF-A165b exerted a significant antinociceptive effect in the MIA model of OA without affecting joint pathology, spinal glial cell activation or COX-2 expression in the PAG. SPHINX-31 did not reverse pain behaviour, but showed a potential effect on astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the DL PAG relative VL PAG in the MIA model of OA

The synthetic cannabinoids menace: a review of health risks and toxicity

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are chemically classified as psychoactive substances that target the endocannabinoid system in many body organs. SCs can initiate pathophysiological changes in many tissues which can be severe enough to damage the normal functionality of our body systems. The majority of SCs-related side effects are mediated by activating Cannabinoid Receptor 1 (CB1R) and Cannabinoid Receptor 2 (CB2R). The activation of these receptors can enkindle many downstream signalling pathways, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis that ultimately can produce deleterious changes in many organs. Besides activating the cannabinoid receptors, SCs can act on non-cannabinoid targets, such as the orphan G protein receptors GPR55 and GPR18, the Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptors (PPARs), and the Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), which are broadly expressed in the brain and the heart and their activation mediates many pharmacological effects of SCs. In this review, we shed light on the multisystem complications found in SCs abusers, particularly discussing their neurologic, cardiovascular, renal, and hepatic effects, as well as highlighting the mechanisms that intermediate SCs-related pharmacological and toxicological consequences to provide comprehensive understanding of their short and long-term systemic effects. Graphical Abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.].The publication of this article was funded by Qatar National Library

VEGFR2 promotes central endothelial activation and the spread of pain in inflammatory arthritis

Chronic pain can develop in response to conditions such as inflammatory arthritis. The central mechanisms underlying the development and maintenance of chronic pain in humans are not well elucidated although there is evidence for a role of microglia and astrocytes. However in pre-clinical models of pain, including models of inflammatory arthritis, there is a wealth of evidence indicating roles for pathological glial reactivity within the CNS. In the spinal dorsal horn of rats with painful inflammatory arthritis we found both a significant increase in CD11b+ microglia-like cells and GFAP+ astrocytes associated with blood vessels, and the number of activated blood vessels expressing the adhesion molecule ICAM-1, indicating potential glio-vascular activation. Using pharmacological interventions targeting VEGFR2 in arthritic rats, to inhibit endothelial cell activation, the number of dorsal horn ICAM-1+ blood vessels, CD11b+ microglia and the development of secondary mechanical allodynia, an indicator of central sensitization, were all prevented. Targeting endothelial VEGFR2 by inducible Tie2-specific VEGFR2 knock-out also prevented secondary allodynia in mice and glio-vascular activation in the dorsal horn in response to inflammatory arthritis. Inhibition of VEGFR2 in vitro significantly blocked ICAM-1-dependent monocyte adhesion to brain microvascular endothelial cells, when stimulated with inflammatory mediators TNFa and VEGF-A165a. Taken together our findings suggest that a novel VEGFR2-mediated spinal cord gliovascular mechanism may promote peripheral CD11b+ circulating cell transmigration into the CNS parenchyma and contribute to the development of chronic pain in inflammatory arthritis. We hypothesise that preventing this glio-vascular activation and circulating cell translocation into the spinal cord could be a new therapeutic strategy for pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis

Effects of VEGF-A165b and SRPK1 inhibition on pain behaviour, cyclooxygenase expression and glial activation in the CNS in a model of osteoarthritis

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common musculoskeletal disease worldwide and a major cause of chronic pain. Treatment of OA pain is still suboptimal due to limited efficacy and considerable side effects of available analgesics. Pain in OA has a significant central component. Cyclooxygenases (COXs) and glial cells in the spinal cord and the periaqueductal gray (PAG) play a significant role in central sensitisation and pain modulation. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) is a key molecule in normal and pathological angiogenesis. Serine arginine protein kinase 1 (SRPK1), which phosphorylates serine arginine splice factor 1 (SRSP1), controls VEGF gene alternative splicing. This results in two splice variants; VEGF-A165a, which is pro-angiogenic and pro-nociceptive, and anti-angiogenic VEGF-A165b, which showed anti-nociceptive effects in models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. Objective: This thesis investigated changes in COX expression and glial activation in the spinal cord and the PAG in the monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) model of OA. It also addressed the effects of VEGF-A165b and SRPK1 inhibitor SPHINX-31 on pain behaviour and joint pathology, as well as COX expression and glial activation in the spinal cord and the PAG in the same model. Hypothesis: VEGF-A165b and SPHINX-31 can prevent and/or reverse enhanced pain behaviour in the MIA model of OA, through involvement of spinal glial cells and COXs in the PAG and spinal cord. Vascular-astrocyte association in the PAG is enhanced in the MIA model of OA, and this effect is reversed by administration of SPHINX-31. Methods: Rats received an intra-articular injection of MIA (1 mg) in the knee. In one study, animals were treated with VEGF-A165b (i.p. 20 ng/g body weight twice weekly) on days 0-13 (VEGF(d0-13) group) or days 14-28 (VEGF(d14-28) group) after MIA injection; in another study, rats received SPHINX-31 (i.p. 0.8 µg/g body weight twice weekly; (MIA/SPHINX group)) for 19 days after induction of the model. Pain behaviour was monitored throughout the studies, at the end of which (day 28) tissues were collected for the assessment of joint histopathology and the evaluation of spinal COX-2 mRNA expression by PCR. In addition, immunofluorescence (IF) was used to assess COX-2 expression and glial activation in the spinal cord, as well as astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the PAG. Results: VEGF-A165b significantly attenuated weight bearing asymmetry (%) in MIA rats on day 28 (29.58 ± 1.803 in MIA/VEGF(d0-13) group vs. 22.95 ± 2.088 in MIA/PBS group, p<0.01; 29.23 ± 1.49 in VEGF(d14-28) vs. 22.95 ± 2.088 in MIA/PBS, p<0.05). VEGF-A165b reversed mechanical withdrawal thresholds to the naïve level, but without reaching statistical significance. No significant changes in knee joint pathology were observed in VEGF-A165b treated MIA rats compared to the MIA/PBS counterparts. In the MIA/VEGF(d0-13) group, contralateral deep laminae of the dorsal horn had a higher percentage (%) of non-neuronal cells expressing COX-2 than the corresponding superficial laminae (3.26 ±1.16 vs 1.12 ± 0.43, p<0.05), while no difference was observed in the MIA/PBS group. Administration of VEGF-A165b did not significantly affect spinal microglia and astrocyte activation, nor COX-2 expression in the PAG. SPHINX-31 had no significant effects on pain behaviour, joint pathology or spinal COX-2 expression in the MIA model of OA. On the other hand, MIA/SPHINX group exhibited a higher activation of spinal microglia than MIA controls (% of CD11b +ve cells in MIA/SPHINX-31 vs MIA/vehicle groups: 6.36 ± 0.89 vs 1.72 ± 0.38, p<0.01). In addition, SPHINX-31 significantly increased astrocyte activation in the ipsilateral dorsolateral (DL) PAG relative to corresponding ventrolateral (VL) PAG (GFAP IF intensity: 12.89 ± 1.52 vs 8.46 ± 0.84, p<0.05), and it increased vascular-astrocyte association (%) in the contralateral DL PAG relative to corresponding VL PAG (70.35 ± 7.68 vs 38.92 ± 8.19, p<0.05). Interestingly, naïve rats had a significantly higher astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the VL PAG than in DL PAG. Conclusions: VEGF-A165b exerted a significant antinociceptive effect in the MIA model of OA without affecting joint pathology, spinal glial cell activation or COX-2 expression in the PAG. SPHINX-31 did not reverse pain behaviour, but showed a potential effect on astrocyte activation and vascular-astrocyte association in the DL PAG relative VL PAG in the MIA model of OA