The Relationship Between English and Employability in the Middle East and North Africa

This report explores what is known about the relationship between English language learning and employability in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Section 1 summarises the economic situation in MENA and describes some of the approaches to reform that have been proposed to generate economic growth, which include labour market reform (a focus on demand), and investment in education and changes in education systems (a focus on supply). It concludes with a collated list of recommendations for reforming MENA economies. Section 2 provides an overview of education systems in MENA and educational policy attempts to respond to economic and social needs in the region. Included in these reforms are proposals to enhance both access to and quality of education; making education more responsive to the needs of the private sector; and expanding and improving English language teaching. This section also presents an overview of the data that exists on the relationship between economic development and education that is relevant to the region. It demonstrates that overall investments in education, though significant in many countries across the region (and particularly in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), have not resulted in the expected outcomes (i.e. significant improvements in the provision of education). Section 3 looks at the role and status of English in society and in education systems across MENA, and considers the role of the language in promoting employability. The section first reviews the evidence that relates English language learning to economic gain for nations and individuals, paying heed also to the results that have been found elsewhere. It suggests that there is a relationship between English language skills and economic gain, but the benefits at a national level are limited by the wider system and factors such as macro-economic stability, good governance and transparency. Similarly, a person’s social environment and individual circumstances limit the returns of English at an individual level. So without targeting the long-embedded inequalities in terms of gender, ethnicity and the urban-rural divide, education in general – and English language education in particular – is not likely to provide disadvantaged individuals with the resources that they need to catch up. There is little quantitative evidence from the MENA region that would allow us to make claims such as “an individual who speaks English earns X% more than an individual that doesn’t” – and this might be the type of evidence that parents and policy makers would most like to see. But even when such claims are made, they are restricted to certain employment sectors and geographic regions and cannot be generalised to whole populations or regions. Evidence also shows that while English language skills are related to economic opportunities, the same can be said of any language skills. Multilingualism is very valuable for societies, and it is certainly not the case, as was once thought by some, that multilingualism acts as a barrier to economic development. This provides good justification for ensuring that local and national languages maintain a strong role in societies, and that children are offered opportunities to develop a strong foundation of literacy and communication skills in local languages, which will then, in turn, ensure a strong basis for second language learning. Section 3 ends with a review of the emerging research into English language teaching programmes and programmes in higher education that are using English as medium of instruction (EMI). These studies highlight the serious challenges involved in implementing effective English language teaching initiatives in the region. They also uncover clear needs to develop teachers’ competences in student-centred, communicative teaching approaches, as well as abilities to deliver sector-specific, authentic ESP programmes. Research into EMI raises severe concerns about the efficacy of such programmes in MENA and the opportunities for students to access learning through English. Moreover, the research uncovers concerns among some MENA populations (overall but particularly in the GCC) of dominance of global culture over local values, as well as efforts to maintain local values, cultures, religion and languages. This research therefore implies that offering quality English language teaching is a challenge in the region. Offering education through English as the only medium seems likely to act as a further hindrance to learning. Despite the significant investment of governments and individuals, even in some of the most generously funded education systems in the world, these challenges persist. This suggests that there are wider issues at stake, and that there is a need for significant transformation in education systems and traditions. Access to high quality English language teaching should be equitable, and should offer individuals opportunities to enhance their capabilities in ways that allow them to capitalise on economic and social opportunities and to take ownership of English as a medium for the expression of local values. At the moment there is little evidence that this is happening. The report concludes by summarising the implications of this review and by proposing recommendations for policy makers and implementers that would help support the transformation of education systems in MENA so that education and language learning can better contribute to human development. These recommendations relate to both wider education systems in general, as the context in which language learning and skills development sits, and English language teaching in particular. The recommendations include: Approaches concerning language use and language learning • Applying a bilingual/multilingual approach to education at all levels and in all countries to support improvements in quality • Building more bridges to allow students to move between their local languages and varieties, the national language and international languages • Ensuring strong foundations in local language(s) literacies as well as English literacy, with bridges connecting the two • Ensuring that appropriate language learning pedagogies are used with young learners so that they gain confidence and useful communication skills • Promoting high quality English language teaching through appropriate teacher education or professional development initiatives and shifts in assessment policies Curriculum reforms • Implementing in policy and practice learner-centred pedagogies that move away from rote learning and memorisation • Integrating critical thinking, problem solving and autonomy skills into the subject curriculum • Updating the curriculum to be relevant to the real needs of society Teacher education • Strengthening systems for initial teacher education and opportunities for the professional development of practising teachers over time and at scale • Harnessing ICTs for the provision of teacher education • Providing support for teachers to enact multilingual strategies in the classroom to support students in learning to communicate in local, national and international languages Educational system reforms • Implementing national quality assurance standards • Reforming assessment systems so that they ensure that certain knowledge and competencies are learned instead of working as gatekeepers • Maintaining focus on improving quality of basic education so that it is relevant to people’s lives and potential for employment • Embedding more flexibility into education systems • Focusing on equity issues (particularly those related to location, gender and language background) • Ensuring that education is delivered in a medium that students can access Technical education • Ensuring that skills development initiatives are relevant and accessible to those who need them most (reducing barriers to vocational education) • Embedding literacy and numeracy development and language learning within Technical Vocational Educational Training (TVET) • Improving the image of TVET (through enhancing employability) Further research, monitoring and evaluation • Filling the data gap with regards to learning outcomes in the region in general and in terms of English levels among teachers and students • Developing independent education research institutions • Promoting monitoring and evaluation, for sharing good practice across the region, and for scaling up successful initiatives • Providing more quantitative data about levels of English in society and needs for English (and other languages) in the labour market, including the informal sector • Providing more qualitative data – through case studies – about what people can actually do with English language skills once obtained, what challenges can be solved and opportunities sought with additional competences in English This report suggests that such education initiatives (including those in ELT) are embedded within wider programmes for development that take into account the larger structural issues in order to enhance people’s opportunities and capabilities

The many names of English

A discussion of the variety of labels given to the language in its worldwide role. In his article 'Is it world or international or global English, and does it matter?� (ET79, Jul 04), Tom McArthur welcomes further comment on the names of English in a 'globalizing world'. He examines the histories and meanings of the three most popular labels for English: world, international and global. In addition to discussing his contribution, I would like to draw attention to other, perhaps less familiar names for English that have been proposed as alternatives. This paper seeks both to survey these labels and uncover why there is such a strong compulsion to rename the language. I suggest that these proposals have arisen in response to postcolonial ambiguity about the spread of English and a desire to shape a new ideology for English language teaching (ELT) which more accurately reflects the global nature of the language and its diverse uses and users

An investigation into the relationship between the use of academic language and attainment – with a focus on students from ethnic minorities

The research employed textual analysis, tutorial observation and interview procedures. Language specialists worked together with subject tutors in three OU courses to investigate the features of student texts that are associated with higher scoring assignments. The researchers then assessed whether students from BME backgrounds were less likely to produce these language features. Texts were obtained from 78 students with a range of assignment marks, from the following ethnic groups: African, Caribbean, Pakistani, Other (Bangladeshi, Chinese and Asian Other) and White (White British and White Other). A total of 220 texts drawn from three subject areas were analysed. The courses chosen for investigation were a level 1 course in Social Sciences, a level 1 course in Technology and a level 2 course in Health and Social Care (DD100, T175 and K204). The language specialists studied course materials, visited tutorials, met with students and analysed the first, mid and final tutor marked assignments (TMAs) of students in their group. The text analysis was carried out using the MASUS (Measuring Academic Skills of University Students) assessment procedure developed at the University of Sydney. The MASUS procedure assesses students’ academic writing skills in five areas: A. Use of source material; B. Structure and development of text; C. Control of academic writing style; D. Grammatical correctness; and E. Presentation. They are given a score in each of these areas: a low score indicates that the student needs support in this area of language use. The data from the MASUS procedure were analysed statistically and qualitatively. Results Analysis of the MASUS data indicated a strong correlation between students’ marks and their use of language (0.52). It also showed that: • The relationship between language and attainment was stronger in earlier TMAs on all courses. There was a stronger correlation between language and attainment in the Social Sciences and Health and Social Care courses than in the Technology course. • The areas of language use that related to the role of language in how content is presented (Use of source material and Structure and development of text) were particularly significant in determining a student’s marks on early TMAs. These are also the categories that tutor feedback focused on. • There was no statistical correlation identified between students’ mark and the areas Academic writing style and Grammatical correctness. However, qualitative analysis indicated that these features distinguished high performers from middle performers. There was little tutor feedback on these categories, and their role in how content is presented and linked was not recognised by the tutors or the course materials. A large number of the total sample – as many as 47%– had language scores that indicated a need for additional support in the areas identified, both in their initial TMAs and in TMAs later in the course (see Table 1 below). This percentage was higher for students in this sample from ethnic minorities. This may at least partially explain the comparatively poor attainment of students from ethnic minorities that has been identified. In this sample, students from ethnic minorities were more likely than students who are White to receive low scores in the area Use of source material (35%, compared with 6%). Plagiarism and problems with referencing were also more likely to occur among students from ethnic minorities. Students from ethnic minorities were more likely than students who are White to receive low scores in the area Structure and development of text (53%, compared with 17%). This gap in language performance narrowed in later TMAs, but is still notable. Table 1: The number of students in sample with low language scores Initial TMA Later TMA Total % of BME % of White Total % of BME % of White Use of source material 29% 35% 6% 24% 25% 6% Structure and development 47% 53% 17% 39% 40% 11% Academic writing style 45% 40% 56% 34% 28% 33% Grammatical correctness 24% 23% 22% 39% 37% 22% Presentation 17% 13% 28% 12% 12% 6% (n=78) (n=60) (n=18) (n=69) (n=55) (n=14) Students who are White were more likely than students from ethnic minorities to receive low scores in the area Academic writing style, particularly in the initial TMAs (56%, compared with 40%). Students from ethnic minorities were more likely than students who are White to get low scores in the area Grammatical correctness, particularly in later TMAs (37%, compared to 22%). The number of students with low scores in the area Grammatical correctness increased over the period of the course. While this area was not found to correlate statistically with student attainment, the researchers who analysed the texts identified a number of grammatical features that appeared to be particularly important for high achievers: • correct sentence structure • use of noun phrases for topic development and conciseness • correct and appropriate use of modals in argumentation • use of passive voice for organising information Apart from the first feature, the significance of these grammatical features lies not in their ‘correctness’ (which is a matter of form) but in their ‘appropriacy’ (which is a matter of how they are used). These features play an important role in students’ use of source materials and structuring and development of texts. Other findings The investigation suggests that the role of language in how content is presented and linked is not recognised by the course materials or the tutors. Course materials Tutors are encouraged to focus their marking on students’ understanding of key concepts in the course. The role that language plays in how these concepts are understood, presented and linked is not acknowledged in the courses’ assessment guidelines. As a result, the students perceive the significant amount of generic language support material available as peripheral. Students’ success in assignments was found to be linked to following the conventions of the text type (or ‘genre’) and using the writing style (or ‘register’) expected by the tutor and referred to in the Assignment Guidelines. In some cases, the assignment guidelines were found to be complicated (e.g. 5½ pages long) and to demand a range of text types and writing styles. This presents further challenges for students unfamiliar with this range of genres and registers. Mixed messages are conveyed to students about the style which is appropriate in academic writing. Students may be offered articles to read which are more ‘academic’ and formal in style, but the ‘voice’ of most OU material is friendly and relatively informal. Tutor feedback In all courses, aspects such as writing style, grammatical correctness and punctuation were not often commented on or corrected by tutors. At times, tutors did not comment on sections of texts where the researchers perceived a student’s ability to communicate ideas to be severely affected. On some assignments, marks were allocated for grammatical correctness and structure, but some students obtained full marks when these aspects of their writing were judged as being far from perfect. When tutors gave language feedback, they tended to ‘tell’ and not ‘show’. This did not seem to make a significant impact on student performance. Tutors did not always provide good language models in their feedback. Students in one group who had direct and sustained contact with a language specialist showed more progress in their writing development than those in the other groups. Implications The research suggests that language plays a significant role in student attainment. A large number of the students from ethnic minorities in the sample had language scores that indicated a need for additional support, particularly in the areas Structure and development of text. This area is particularly significant in determining students’ marks and could explain in part the gap in attainment. But, this investigation suggests that the role of language in how content is presented and linked is not recognised by the course materials or the tutors. Nor does the generic language support available seem to be serving its purpose, as the number of students with low scores in the area Grammatical correctness increased as the courses progressed. The findings suggest that it may not be in the students’ best interest to be waved through a course without sufficient attention paid to their language needs, as this may prove a significant barrier to achieving above a certain level (cf. O’Shea-Poon and Kimura 2008, who found that non-fluency in English appears to be a significant barrier to achieving above a certain level in OU courses). Recommendations It was not the primary purpose of this research to generate recommendations for practice but a number of good practices are suggested by the findings. Tutors should be supported in raising their awareness of the importance of language in student attainment and in giving helpful feedback on students’ language use across the span of a course. Only by linking grammar and vocabulary development to the categories Use of source material and Structure and development of text is it possible to go beyond notions of language as ‘a problem’ that interferes in students’ performance towards notions of language as ‘a resource’ to be developed as part of students’ academic attainment. Feedback on students’ language use should concretely demonstrate how to do things, instead of abstractly telling them. The use of language in tutor feedback should also provide a model. Students and tutors could be offered models of good writing practice in addition to the assignment descriptions they already receive in Assignment Guidelines. These could be exemplars of text types and writing styles appropriate to key assignments on a course (see, for example, the concept maps for TMAs designed as part of this project). A diagnostic might be a useful tool to identify those students who could benefit from some support with academic English. Tutors could then target that support most effectively. Further research Further data should be collected on students’ language backgrounds. Other useful studies to gain more insight into the relationship between language use and attainment would include further examination of: • the grammatical constructions required in the structuring and development of assignments, particularly in the areas of grammar identified in this project; instances of plagiarism and problems with referencing; use of informal language • tutor feedback on language use • the research instruments used in this project. Further information Please contact Elizabeth Erling or Jim Donohue in OpenELT for any further information on this project, including a copy of the full report, which includes case studies of the three courses involved (DD100, T175 and K204): [email protected] ; [email protected]. Contact Rachel Hawkins in Student Services regarding any actions: [email protected]. Project team David Hann, John Kearsey, Kerry Bannister, Christine Buller, Christina Healey, Zoe Doyé, Chris Lee, Harish Mehra Acknowledgements With gratitude to • Student Services, who generously funded this project; • the project advisors: Rachel Hawkins, Roberta Nathan, Anne Jelfs, Erica Morris, Maggie Coates, Maki Kimura, Tony O’Shea-Poon, John Richardson; • the tutors, course teams and Regions that allowed the project to take place; and • the students who volunteered to participate

Multilingual classrooms: opportunities and challenges for English medium instruction in low and middle income contexts

This report is the product of a research collaboration between Education Development Trust, the British Council and The Open University. Its starting point was to consider the complex field of English Medium Instruction (EMI) policies in low and middle income countries (LMICs). Its purpose is to provide insight and support to those responsible for setting policy or enacting it in complex language environments around the world. The work recognises the importance given to English language by governments in the future development of intellectual and economic capital, and to accessing opportunity in an increasingly global world. It also recognises and respects the strong argument calling for education and learning to be conducted in a language spoken by learners and teachers. Navigating these two influences can appear impossible at times as they can be unhelpfully positioned as opposites. This research study set out to do two things: • Look at the global literature and draw on the lessons from existing research. • Focus on illustrating the operational enactment and levels of understanding of EMI polices in schools in two primary school contexts – Ghana and Bihar, India. These very different contexts provide valuable lessons that will help policy makers, educators, teacher trainers and schools to navigate the complexities of multilingual EMI environments

'I learn English since ten years’: the global English debate and the German university classroom

A report on German university students learning and working in English. WHEN A student produces a sentences like “I learn English since ten years” it can be assumed that they haven't had a very good English teacher, that they may not, in fact, be very good in English despite the amount of time they've spent learning the language. However, some of my students may indeed produce a sentence like this. In the English Department of the Freie Universität in Berlin, I teach students who have already studied English for at least ten years by the time they enter university. And in order to study in our department, the students must pass a proficiency-level entrance exam. These students then have English as one of their major subjects, so their knowledge of the language is fairly sophisticated and their contact with the language regular

Globalization, English and the German University classroom: a sociolinguistic profile of students of English at the Freie Universität Berlin

This thesis surveys current theories of globalization and then inspects the effects of this phenomenon on the English language. It suggests that not only has the English language changed as a result of globalization, but that discourse about English and the means of analysis have changed. It then tests the relevance of contemporary theories of English to find if they match the reality of how English is being acquired, used and appropriated in the present age.Since globalization is appropriated differently by the various societies it affects, it is important to consider each individual place with its specific history, culture and politics to evaluate different outcomes. For this reason, this thesis examines the presence of English in the specific national context of Germany, but focuses on a group who uses the language regularly for a variety of international purposes: students of English at the Freie Universitat Berlin. Methods used in this analysis include a qualitative analysis of questionnaires, discourse analysis of ethnographic interviews with students and grammatical and stylistic analyses of student essays and assignments. The results of this study shed light on various student attitudes towards and motivations for learning English as well as their means of identifying with the language.With this in mind, this study suggests that several issues in the field of applied linguistics need to be reappraised, for example types of English learners, categorizations of English speakers, domains of language use, and the role of a lingua franca and its ability to represent identity in L2 language use. Furthermore, this work suggests important pedagogical implications for English language teaching as a result of these developments. As English is being increasingly used as a global language and also being accepted as the common language of the European Union, there need to be corresponding shifts in ELT pedagogy. Such changes would include an increased teaching of English as a global language; an opening up to the teaching of (at least awareness of) L2 varieties of English; the increasing study of contexts where English is used; measures to increase students' perceptive abilities concerning L2 varieties of English; a move away from teaching based on nationalist approaches to language learning; an emphasis on communicative expertise in language and not on following national linguistic norms; and teaching strategies that increase students' confidence in appropriating English

Supporting development through improving English language teaching and learning in Bangladesh

English language teaching has a prominent role in the education policy of Bangladesh, as it is framed in policy discourse as a means of supporting the economic development of individuals and the nation. In 1991, English was made an obligatory subject from Grade 1. However, since that time, it has been the most commonly failed exam subject (Hamid and Baldauf, 2008). Less than 10 per cent of primary teachers have a level of English as high as the primary textbooks (Rahman and Janan, 2011). Previous training has failed to provide teachers with the necessary skills for effective classroom practice (Kraft et al, 2009), and student participation in lessons is usually passive (EIA 2009). In this context, as partners with the Government of Bangladesh, the English in Action programme (EIA) has been working to identify ways of improving teaching practices and student learning outcomes in English, in both primary and secondary schools. This paper reports on an intervention that has so far shown impact on changing teacher and student perceptions of learning, classroom practices and learning outcomes. These pedagogic successes are also being linked to economic gain for individuals. This intervention attributes its success so far to its school-based approach to teacher development which harnesses technology. New ideas and practices are introduced through offline audio-visual materials provided on low-cost mobile phones. As well as facilitating the formation of peer networks and the mentoring of teachers, technology allows the intervention to reach rural communities and marginalized groups

Synthesis Report: Evidence of the Relationship between English and Economic Gain in Bangladesh

This report presents an overview of research evidence that has been collected through various channels in the EIA programme regarding the relationship between English language skills and economic gain in Bangladesh. It provides an overview of three research projects: 1) The EIA Employer Survey, a telephone survey of formal employers, across a range of sectors, focused upon employers’ perceptions of the need for English competence in their workplace, and the extent to which current employees or job applicants meet that need. 2) The Euromonitor study of job advertisements, and interviews with employment agencies, focused upon the proportion of advertised positions stating English competence as a requirement, and the salary premium for such vacancies. 3) BBC Media Action research, focused upon the relationship between tested and self-assessed English competence and economic status