Analysing the carbon footprint of food

In Europe, food consumption is responsible for approximately 30% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. There has been huge interest in estimating the carbon footprint (CF) of food products, i.e. the total amount of GHG emitted during the life cycle of the product, and communicating these to consumers to enable them to make informed choices. This thesis provides additional knowledge of several related issues regarding calculating and acting on the CF of food products in order to facilitate the design of effective consumer communication strategies. The uncertainty in the CF of Swedish potatoes and pasta was established to investigate the detail to which food CF can be determined. For a well-defined geographical area the uncertainty was in the range ±10-30%, indicating that the CF uncertainty for more complex foods or foods with a more unspecific origin is considerably higher. Emissions of N₂O from soils dominated the emissions and uncertainties, and yield was an influential parameter for all crops. Possible risks of pollution swapping when acting on CF were investigated in the case of meat production. For meat from monogastric animals, in most cases the CF functions as an indicator for land, energy and pesticide use, and for acidification and eutrophication potential, but for ruminant meat there are possible conflicts with biodiversity, energy and pesticide use. In an attempt to develop a tool that communicates the CF of meat in an efficient way, while highlighting important trade-offs, a criteria-based meat guide based on the knowledge gained was developed. A critical review of CF labelling from a consumer perspective showed that obstacles known to prevent purchase of organic foods, e.g. perceived high price and strong habits, apply equally or more so to the purchase of CF labelled foods. Hence, CF labelling of food in a retail setting is of limited effectiveness, but CF values are important in business-to-business communication, in policy development and for developing efficient and scientifically justified consumer communication messages. Quantification of the reduction potential from a commonly recommended option, 'eating seasonal', showed that consuming tomatoes and carrots seasonally in Sweden could reduce the CF by 30-60%. This is a substantial reduction for these products, but a small reduction in view of the total GHG emissions from the complete average diet. This illustrates the importance of calculating CF values of food and setting the results in perspective

Controlling Sustainability in Swedish Beef Production: Outcomes for Farmers and the Environment

Swedish beef and dairy farmers are currently facing a challenging financial situation. Simultaneously, beef farming contributes significant environmental impacts. To support farmers, actors from the whole value chain are now promoting Swedish beef as particularly ‘sustainable’. The paper draws on critical discourse analysis of interviews with and documents from the largest Swedish supermarket chain ICA, Swedish farmer organisations and farmers to study how ICA and farmers articulate sustainability and their responsibility for the same. Articulations are subsequently discussed in the light of actual environmental impacts of beef production and the distribution of power in the beef value chain. The findings suggest that negative environmental impacts and farmers’ struggles are largely hidden in the dominant articulation of sustainability. Furthermore, ICA does not use the power it has to steer consumers toward reduced beef consumption. We conclude with suggesting more open deliberation about current levels of beef sales and consumption and about what compromises to make when striving for ‘sustainable’ beef consumption

Mat-klimat-listan

Den mat vi äter, och den vi slänger, står för en betydande klimatpåverkan. Utsläppen måste minskas radikalt för att vi ska nå de uppsatta klimatmålen. Stor potential att minska utsläppen i produktionsled finns, men vi måste också förändra vilken typ av mat vi äter då en stor del av utsläppen kommer från biologiska processer som är svåra att kontrollera. För att få en uppfattning om storleksordningen på utsläppen från livsmedelskonsumtionen i en viss verksamhet och hur olika val av livsmedel påverkar utsläppen är det värdefullt att kvantifiera utsläppen av växthusgaser så att insatser som planeras och genomförs kan följas upp och utvärderas. Det finns tusentals olika livsmedelsprodukter i Sverige. Livscykelanalyser, som beräknar utsläppen av växthusgaser per livsmedel, har bara gjorts på en bråkdel av dessa då de är dyra att genomföra och snabbt åldras. Trots de begränsningar som finns med livscykelanalys har dessa beräkningar gett värdefull kunskap om storleksordningen på utsläppen från olika livsmedelsgrupper. Kunskapen kan sättas i användning för att minska klimatpåverkan från mat, då val mellan olika typer av livsmedel har stor betydelse för matens klimatpåverkan. Siffrorna som presenteras i Mat-klimat-listan är grova skattningar av olika livsmedels klimatavtryck. Ett medelvärde och ett variationsintervall anges för en hel kategori livsmedel, t.ex. nötkött, bröd, mjölk etc. Variationen är ofta stor inom gruppen, men medelvärdet gäller generellt som en representativ siffra för storleksordningen för de flesta varor inom gruppen. Syftet med Mat-klimat-listan är att den ska användas för översiktliga beräkningar av växthusgasutsläpp från livsmedelskonsumtion från en verksamhet eller en viss typ av kosthållning. Genom att använda sig av samma klimatsiffror vid beräkningar inom kommuner, projekt och annan privat och offentlig verksamhet blir det lättare att jämföra och utvärdera resultaten. Dessutom behöver inte alla genomföra den litteraturstudie som krävs för att sammanställa resultaten. Mat-klimat-listan behöver kontinuerligt uppdateras allt eftersom ny kunskap kommer fram och versionshanteras således. Detta är andra versionen av Mat-klimat-listan, version 1.1, som förmodas vara aktuell t.o.m. 2015 och behöver därefter återigen utvärderas

Multi-criteria evaluation of plant-based foods -use of environmental footprint and LCA data for consumer guidance

Many consumers are willing to move to a more plant-based diet, as is apparent from the increasing demand for plant-based protein sources on many markets. There is scientific evidence that such diets are associated with lower environmental impacts, especially climate impact, land use, and energy use. However, all food production affects the environment, and there is scope for more sustainable food choices even among plant-based foods. We present a method for environmental multi-criteria evaluation of plant-based products to enable communication through a consumer guide, which was developed in cooperation with World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Sweden and involves a real-life case of implementation. The guide included 90 products, divided into five product groups. Four environmental impact categories were evaluated (climate impact, biodiversity impact, water use, pesticide use), to give a fuller, more complex picture of potential environmental impacts of plant-based products than when evaluating only one impact category, such as climate impact. Available environmental footprint data and LCA data adapted for the specific consumer market (Sweden) were used. A method for calculating absolute sustainability thresholds for single products was developed, based on newly published global sustainability boundaries for the food system (Willett et al., 2019). To account for the different dietary functions of food, different thresholds for evaluating different food groups were applied, thus accounting for the role, and to some extent the nutrient content, of different food products. This enabled evaluation of foods based on the same grounds, i.e., using the global sustainability boundaries and the same functional unit for all food products (1 kg of food at a store in Sweden), while visualizing differences in environmental impacts of products within a certain food group. This revealed the best choice of protein sources, vegetables, etc. The method provides a way to use large amounts of data of varying quality, and reduces the complexity in evaluating the environmental impacts of food. It therefore hopefully facilitates sustainable plant-based food choices, for more environmentally sustainable food consumption. (C) 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd

Kor och klimat

Produktion av kött och mjölk från idisslare genererar utsläpp av växthusgaser i form av metan från idisslarnas fodersmältning, lustgas och koldioxid från foderproduktionen, metan och lustgas från gödselhantering samt koldioxid från energianvändning i stallar och slakterier. Till det kommer utsläpp från avskogning i framför allt Sydamerika som orsakas av ökad efterfrågan på foder och betesmark. Utsläppen från djurhållningen domineras av utsläpp av metan från framför allt idisslarnas fodersmältning. Metan är en växthusgas som på kort sikt värmer atmosfären betydligt mer än koldioxid men som bryts ner efter cirka ett decennium, medan en stor del av koldioxiden stannar i atmosfären för alltid. Detta innebär förenklat att konstanta utsläpp av metan inte ytterligare ökar temperaturen eftersom det metan som släpps ut bara ersätter det metan som försvinner. Ökade utsläpp av metan ökar dock uppvärmningen medan minskade utsläpp av metan medför en temperatursänkning. Minskade utsläpp av koldioxid innebär däremot endast en långsammare uppvärmning av atmosfären. Sett över hundra år och med både gasernas uppvärmande förmåga och deras livslängd beaktat orsakar utsläpp av 1kg metan en klimateffekt som är 34 gånger större än utsläpp av 1 kg koldioxid. Under vissa förhållanden kan utsläppen som djurhållningen orsakar delvis eller helt kompenseras av att marken där djurens foder odlas och där de betar lagrar in kol genom att en del av kolet i växtresterna stabiliseras i marken under nedbrytningsprocessen. Störst potential att lagra in kol har marker med lågt kolinnehåll, till exempel överbetade marker eller åkermark där ettåriga grödor odlats under lång tid. Förändrad markanvändning, som övergång från ettåriga grödor till flerårig vall, leder till att större mängder kol tillförs marken. Kolinlagringen avtar med tiden då marken intar ett nytt jämviktsläge och markkolet kan också återgå till atmosfären om markanvändningen förändras igen, till exempel om vall eller permanenta beten på åkermark plöjs upp. Globalt finns betydande potential att lagra in kol i jordbruksmark. Potentialen att lagra in kol är större i åkermark (globalt 2-7 miljarder ton koldioxid per år) än i betesmark (globalt 0,35-1,4 miljarder ton koldioxid per år). Utsläppen förknippade med all djurhållning globalt uppgår till cirka åtta miljarder ton koldioxidekvivalenter. Kolinlagring i betesmarken globalt kan således inte kompensera för djurhållningens eller de betande djurens utsläpp (två miljarder ton koldioxidekvivalenter), och är betydligt lägre än de totala utsläppen av växthusgaser globalt (cirka 50 miljarder ton koldioxidekvivalenter). Detsamma gäller även för Sverige där betesmarkerna idag beräknas lagra in mellan 0,1 och 0,3 miljoner ton koldioxid per år vilket kan jämföras med utsläppen från idisslarna på cirka sex miljoner ton koldioxidekvivalenter per år eller Sveriges totala utsläpp på 53 miljoner ton koldioxidekvivalenter per år. Mätningar av kolhalten i svensk åkermark tyder på att den ökade vallodling som skett i Sverige under de senaste decennierna årligen ökar inlagringen av kol motsvarande totalt cirka 2,4 miljoner ton koldioxid per år. Att öka inlagringen av kol i marken och att bibehålla befintligt markkol är viktigt för att öka och bibehålla markens bördighet och är en viktig del i att minska klimatpåverkan. Produktionssystem med bete har många fördelar, bland annat för djurens välfärd och genom att djuren omvandlar för människan osmältbar biomassa till näringsrika livsmedel. Dessutom bidrar abete av svenska naturbetesmarker till att livsmiljöer för många hotade arter bibehålls. Det är dock inte troligt att inlagring av kol i betes- och fodermarker helt eller till stor del kan kompensera för de utsläpp av växthusgaser som djurhållningen orsakar utom i enskilda undantagsfall. En klok avvägning mellan flera miljömål och sociala aspekter behöver göras för att komma fram till vad som kan anses vara en lagom stor mängd idisslare i Sverige och globalt

Smaller farm size and ruminant animals are associated with increased supply of non-provisioning ecosystem services

To balance trade-offs between livestock's negative environmental impacts and their positive contributions (e.g. maintaining semi-natural grasslands, varied agricultural landscapes and crop rotations), a better understanding is needed of how the supply of ecosystem services differs across farms. We analysed a suite of indicators for non-provisioning ecosystem services on a large subset of Swedish farms (71% of farms, covering 82% of agricultural land) and related these to farm type, farm size and livestock density. The analysed indicators exhibited clear geographical patterns with hotspots especially in less productive regions. Controlling for this spatial variation we still found that small-scale and ruminant farms were associated with more varied landscapes, small-scale habitats, semi-natural grasslands and better crop sequences compared to nearby farms specialised in crop production, while farms specialising in monogastric livestock were associated with less varied landscapes and inferior crop sequences. Results for cultural ecosystem services indicated that farms with more semi-natural grassland were associated with more visitors and more likely located within designated recreation or nature conservation areas

The role of fats in the transition to sustainable diets

In comparison with protein, dietary fat receives little attention in the food system sustainability literature, although we calculate that the average consumption of fats in many populous regions of the world is below nutritional recommendations. Animal products are the major source of dietary fat, particularly in regions with excess fat consumption. We estimate that an additional 45 Mt of dietary fat per year need to be produced and consumed for the global population to reach recommended levels of fat consumption, and we review different strategies to fill this gap sustainably. These strategies include diverting oils currently used for energy production to human consumption, increasing palm oil and peanut oil yields while avoiding further deforestation, developing sustainable cropping systems for the production of rapeseed and soybean oils, increasing the consumption of whole soybeans and derived products, and expanding the use of animal fats already produced

Modeling price sensitivity in food consumption

In this paper we investigate the mitigation possibilities of climate impact weighted food taxes in Sweden. We include 52 food items in a demand system of elasticities, covering most food consumed by the Swedish population. Tax levels are based on the Swedish Carbon tax and would lead to price increases up to SEK 25 (close to EURO 2.5) per kilo product. The possible emission reductions would be just above 200 kilos of CO2e emissions per person and year which corresponds to a 10% decrease from Swedish food consumption. Most important for the reductions are beef, other meats and dairy products. Almost 90% of reductions are from animal products

Environmental effects of coffee, tea and cocoa- data collection for a consumer guide for plant-based foods

In 2020, WWF launched a consumer guide on plant-based products targeting Swedish consumers. The development of the guide is described in a journal paper (Karlsson Potter & Röös, 2021) and the environmental impact of different plant based foods was published in a report (Karlsson Potter, Lundmark, & Röös, 2020). This report was prepared for WWF Sweden to provide scientific background information for complementing the consumer guide with information on coffee, tea and cocoa. This report includes quantitative estimations for several environmental categories (climate, land use, biodiversity and water use) of coffee (per L), tea (per L) and cocoa powder (per kg), building on the previously established methodology for the consumer guide. In addition, scenarios of consumption of coffee, tea and cocoa drink with milk/plant-based drinks and waste at household level, are presented. Tea, coffee and cacao beans have a lot in common. They are tropical perennial crops traditionally grown in the shade among other species, i.e. in agroforestry systems. Today, the production in intensive monocultures has negative impact on biodiversity. Re-introducing agroforestry practices may be part of the solution to improve biodiversity in these landscapes. Climate change will likely, due to changes in temperature, extreme weather events and increases in pests and disease, alter the areas where these crops can be grown in the future. A relatively high ratio of the global land used for coffee, tea and cocoa is certified according to sustainability standards, compared to other crops. Although research on the implications of voluntary standards on different outcomes is inconclusive, the literature supports that certifications have a role in incentivizing more sustainable farming. Coffee, tea and cocoa all contain caffeine and have a high content of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, and they have all been associated with positive health outcomes. While there is a strong coffee culture in Sweden and coffee contributes substantially to the environmental impact of our diet, tea is a less consumed beverage. Cocoa powder is consumed as a beverage, but substantial amounts of our cocoa consumption is in the form of chocolate. Roasted ground coffee on the Swedish market had a climate impact of 4.0 kg CO2e per kg powder, while the climate impact of instant coffee powder was 11.5 kg CO2e per kg. Per litre, including the energy use for making the coffee, the total climate impact was estimated to 0.25 kg CO2e per L brewed coffee and 0.16 kg CO2e per L for instant coffee. Less green coffee beans are needed to produce the same amount of ready to drink coffee from instant coffee than from brewed coffee. Tea had a climate impact of approximately 6.3 kg CO2 e per kg dry leaves corresponding to an impact of 0.064 CO2e per L ready to drink tea. In the assessment of climate impact per cup, tea had the lowest impact with 0.013 kg CO2e, followed by black instant coffee (0.024 kg CO2e), black coffee (0.038 kg CO2e), and cocoa drink made with milk (0.33 kg CO2e). The climate impact of 1kg cocoa powder on the Swedish market was estimated to 2.8 kg CO2e. Adding milk to coffee or tea increases the climate impact substantially. The literature describes a high proportion of the total climate impact of coffee from the consumer stage due to the electricity used by the coffee machine. However, with the Nordic low-carbon energy mix, the brewing and heating of water and milk contributes to only a minor part of the climate impact of coffee. As in previous research, coffee also had a higher land use, water use and biodiversity impact than tea per L beverage. Another factor of interest at the consumer stage is the waste of prepared coffee. Waste of prepared coffee contributes to climate impact through the additional production costs and electricity for preparation, even though the latter was small in our calculations. The waste of coffee and tea at Summary household level is extensive and measures to reduce the amount of wasted coffee and tea could reduce the environmental impact of Swedish hot drink consumption. For the final evaluation of coffee and tea for the consumer guide, the boundary for the fruit and vegetable group was used. The functional unit for coffee and tea was 1 L prepared beverage without any added milk or sweetener. In the guide, the final evaluation of conventionally grown coffee is that it is ‘yellow’ (‘Consume sometimes’), and for organic produce, ‘light green’ (‘Please consume). The evaluation of conventionally grown tea is that it is ‘light green’, and for organic produce, ‘dark green’ (‘Preferably consume this’). For cocoa, the functional unit is 1 kg of cocoa powder and the boundary was taken from the protein group. The final evaluation of conventionally grown cocoa is that it is ‘orange’ (‘Be careful’), and for organically produced cocoa, ‘light green’