12 research outputs found

    Between a Rock and a Hard Place. The Islamic Council of Norway and the Challenge of Representing Islam in Europe

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    In several European countries the authorities have sought to institutionalize and regulate the Islamic or Muslim presence in their countries through Islamic Representative Councils (IRCs) that can function as interlocutors between Muslim communities and the state. Many of these organizations have been marked by instability, defection, conflict, or splits. This thesis asks why, through a detailed case study of the trajectory of one such IRC – the Islamic Council of Norway (IRN). Existing research on IRCs has not delved deeply into the question of why so many IRCs have been unstable, but three broad perspectives can be found. One perspective is that there are internal reasons for the conflicts: it is argued that Muslims and Muslim organizations are simply too different from one another, and this may make cooperation difficult. Another perspective is that these conflicts have been caused by external reasons: external conditions or the policies of the authorities made it difficult for these organizations to function well. A third perspective is that the conflicts were caused by a combination of internal and external factors – it is about the competing expectations they face, and the difficulties of dealing with these competing expectations. The thesis employs a process-tracing approach to explore the trajectory of the Islamic Council of Norway. The organization was created in 1992/1993 and grew stronger for the next couple of decades. The IRN’s performance during the cartoon crisis in 2006 led the government to provide public funding to the organization from 2007 onwards. In the 2010s a conflict began to emerge. One faction advocated a dialogue path, with an emphasis on soft rhetoric and external outreach. Another faction advocated a community path, which aimed at strengthening the internal solidarity in the Muslim communities. Those who were in favour of the community path won the internal power struggle and were able to secure an independent source of funding through a successful system for certification of halal meat. After a prolonged conflict the advocates of the dialogue path decided to break out and create a competing organization. The government took away the IRN’s funding, and the system for halal certification broke down. Following the split, the IRN continued to exist, but now without funding and with a close competitor. The thesis relies on analysis of different sources of data – primary archival records, secondary literature, oral interviews, and media items – in order to ascertain why these events occurred. Perspectives from earlier scholarly literature indeed point to relevant factors, but the concepts are clarified and the actual mechanisms are unpacked in detail. What earlier researchers have referred to as diversity on the Islamic field is in this thesis conceptualized as multipolarity. Multipolarity played a role since different member organizations in the IRN had different goals. During its phase of consolidation the organization was able to work through these differences. But when the conflict erupted in the 2010s, the multipolarity among the members made it more difficult to find solutions. Throughout the organization’s history external actors also had an impact. Whereas existing literature mostly talks about the relationship between IRCs and the state, the case of the IRN indicates that intermediary third-party organizations can also be important. In the first couple of decades these organizations acted as stabilizing forces. These organizations helped actors in the IRN to find ways of dealing with the demands from different sectors of Norwegian society. When the organization was beset by stormy weather these organizations were there to help the IRN. In the final phase, however, these organizations did not publicly support the IRN, giving the authorities carte blanche to remove funding from the organization. It was a consistent challenge for the IRN to deal with the competing demands placed on the organization. The thesis details how such competing demands can create challenges and conflicts. The organization mostly tried to deal with such competing demands through balancing solutions which to a certain degree could satisfy all stakeholders. The major difficulties for the organization arose when different factions in the organization wanted to pursue different and conflicting strategies for dealing with these competing demands. In addition to these existing perspectives from the literature, this thesis also shows that organization matters. The challenges IRN experienced are not unique to IRCs as Islamic or migrant-dominated organizations. In the thesis the IRN is conceptualized as a meta-organization: an organization whose members are organizations themselves. Meta-organizations often have weak central hierarchies and are therefore ill-suited to deal with conflicts and deep disagreements. Crucially, the thesis shows that all of these factors interacted with one another. When a meta-organization is placed in a politicized environment that frequently requires it to take a stand on controversial issues, when it has a multipolar membership base and faces external actors that place difficult demands on the organization, conflicts and difficulties easily arise. This thesis is the first study to explore in depth why IRCs seem prone to conflicts and splits. The main factors identified – the multipolarity of the Islamic field, the influence and meddling of external actors, the multiple demands the organizations are facing and disagreements about how to relate to these demands, the difficulties of solving conflicts due to the weak hierarchy of meta-organizations, and the interplay between these factors – have probably played a role in the conflicts in other IRCs as well. For the research fields of political science and Islamic studies on the one hand, and authorities and Muslim organizations in Europe on the other, this dissertation brings new conceptual and empirical knowledge. It elucidates why it remains a challenge to ensure that relations between authorities and IRCs can be beneficial both to society at large and to the Muslim communities themselves

    Teologi og tilpasning: Skillelinjer og konfliktlinjer i norsk organisert islam

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    Innenfor statsvitenskapen har flere forskere analysert samfunnet som et felt som preges av politiske skillelinjer eller konfliktlinjer, etter pionerarbeidene til Stein Rokkan. En konfliktlinje er en dimensjon konflikter gjerne krystalliserer seg rundt - slik som arbeiderklasse mot overklasse eller sentrum mot periferi. I forskningen pÄ organisert islam i bÄde Norge og andre europeiske land har man i liten grad utforsket hvilke konfliktlinjer som er de dominerende. Mye tyder pÄ at organisert islam i Norge er et felt som preges av bÄde samarbeid og konflikt, men det finnes lite forskning pÄ hvilke konfliktlinjer som dominerer. I denne artikkelen forsÞker jeg Ä identifisere hvilke konfliktlinjer som preger organisert islam i Norge ved Ä ta utgangspunkt i historien til Islamsk RÄd Norge. Ettersom Islamsk RÄd Norge (IRN) har vÊrt det viktigste forsÞket pÄ Ä samle de ulike delene av norsk organisert islam under én paraply, er det sannsynlig at konfliktlinjene i IRN ogsÄ kan brukes som et prisme for Ä forstÄ konfliktlinjer i det bredere islamske landskapet.publishedVersio

    Den norske dialogmodellen: Representasjon og dialog som svar pÄ kulturell ulikhet

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    Kulturell og religiÞs ulikhet kan lede til utfordringer for et samfunn som det norske. Men finnes det mÄter man kan hÄndtere kulturell og religiÞs ulikhet pÄ, slik at konflikter kan fÄ konstruktive utfall? Basert pÄ en historisk studie av Islamsk RÄd Norge argumenterer jeg i dette kapittelet for at man har fÄtt til det i Norge. I Norge har det oppstÄtt en uformell modell for dialog og samarbeid mellom ledere i ulike trossamfunn. Denne modellen har aldri blitt formalisert eller lovregulert. Likevel har den hatt stor betydning og har antakelig fÞrt til endringer bÄde hos trossamfunnene selv og i samfunnet rundt.publishedVersio

    Dialog, interessekamp og integrasjon: Islamsk RĂ„d Norge og det norske samfunnet siden 1993

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    Migrasjonssosiologiens svarte boks? Sosialpsykologiske prosesser i mĂžtet mellom innvandrere og det norske samfunnet

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    Innenfor migrasjonssosiologien er det vanlig Ä gjÞre antakelser om sosialpsykologiske prosesser og mekanismer pÄ mikronivÄ. Disse prosessene og mekanismene har i blant blitt beskrevet pÄ en lite presis mÄte: Man gjÞr antakelser om hvordan mennesker forholder seg til hverandre, men lar antakelsene forbli implisitte og impresjonistiske. Som strÄmenn i artikkelen bruker vi to av vÄre egne tidligere artikler: Vi viser hvordan vi gjorde antakelser om grunnleggende psykologiske mekanismer i sosial interaksjon, men at disse antakelsene vanskelig lot seg undersÞke innenfor de konkrete empiriske casene som ble undersÞkt. Videre hevder vi at mange av de mekanismene som migrasjonssosiologer kan ta for gitt, ofte er blitt beskrevet og undersÞkt pÄ en analytisk og presis mÄte innenfor eksperimentell sosialpsykologisk forskning. VÄr pÄstand er at den eksperimentelle sosialpsykologien kan tilby et repertoar av mulige forklaringsmekanismer som empirisk orienterte sosiologer med fordel kan trekke veksler pÄ nÄr man gjÞr tolkninger av hva som skjer i en rotete sosial virkelighet

    Secularists, Democratic Islamists and Utopian Dreamers : How Muslim Religious Leaders in Norway fit Islam into the Norwegian Political System

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    Denne oppgaven undersÞker hvordan muslimske religiÞse ledere i Norge fÄr islam til Ä passe inn i det norske politiske systemet. Jeg intervjuet lederne i Ätte av de stÞrste moskéene i Norge, og spurte dem om deres politiske og religiÞse holdninger. Spesielt ser jeg pÄ sammenhengen mellom hva de anser som det ideelle islamske politiske systemet, og de politiske endringene de Þnsker i Norge og i deres muslimske opprinnelsesland. Hovedfunnet er at alle informantene anser det norske politiske systemet som godt, og anser situasjonen i den muslimske verden som dÄrlig. Men pÄ et ideologisk nivÄ forholder de seg til det norske politiske systemet pÄ ulike mÄter. Jeg konsruerer en firedelt typologi som alle informantene passer inn i: - Sekularistene Þnsker en sekulÊr demokratisk stat i bÄde Norge og deres muslimske opprinnelsesland. - Muslimdemokratene Þnsker liberalt demokrati i bÄde Norge og opprinnelseslandet. De mener at islam angir politiske grunnverdier, men ikke et ferdig system som skal implementeres i samfunnet. - De utopiske drÞmmerne stÞtter liberalt demokrati i bÄde Norge og deres muslimske opprinnelsesland. Men de hevder at et ideelt islamsk system likevel ville vÊre annerledes enn det liberale demokratiet. - De demokratiske islamistene stÞtter liberal demokrati i Norge, men Þnsker en type ikke-liberal islamistisk demokrati i deres muslimske opprinnelsesland

    Teologi og tilpasning: Skillelinjer og konfliktlinjer i norsk organisert islam

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    Innenfor statsvitenskapen har flere forskere analysert samfunnet som et felt som preges av politiske skillelinjer eller konfliktlinjer, etter pionerarbeidene til Stein Rokkan. En konfliktlinje er en dimensjon konflikter gjerne krystalliserer seg rundt - slik som arbeiderklasse mot overklasse eller sentrum mot periferi. I forskningen pÄ organisert islam i bÄde Norge og andre europeiske land har man i liten grad utforsket hvilke konfliktlinjer som er de dominerende. Mye tyder pÄ at organisert islam i Norge er et felt som preges av bÄde samarbeid og konflikt, men det finnes lite forskning pÄ hvilke konfliktlinjer som dominerer. I denne artikkelen forsÞker jeg Ä identifisere hvilke konfliktlinjer som preger organisert islam i Norge ved Ä ta utgangspunkt i historien til Islamsk RÄd Norge. Ettersom Islamsk RÄd Norge (IRN) har vÊrt det viktigste forsÞket pÄ Ä samle de ulike delene av norsk organisert islam under én paraply, er det sannsynlig at konfliktlinjene i IRN ogsÄ kan brukes som et prisme for Ä forstÄ konfliktlinjer i det bredere islamske landskapet

    Nakba pÄ nytt

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    I Israel har fordrivelsen av palestinerne i 1948 og -49 lenge vÊrt tabubelagt. Men i to nyere israelske romaner har nakbaen plutselig gjort sin entré. Begge romanene har blitt store salgsuksesser. Hvordan skildres nakbaen i disse bÞkene, og hva kan de fortelle oss om tendenser i dagens israelske samfunn

    Dialog, interessekamp og integrasjon: Islamsk RĂ„d Norge og det norske samfunnet siden 1993

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    Regulations in flux: Theology, politics, and halal slaughter in Norway

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       When it comes to sharia regulations – or the question of Islamic norms more broadly – there are few areas which are of more direct relevance for the daily life of Muslims than the question of what to eat. For meat to be halal, several Islamic theologians have claimed that animals must be conscious at the time of slaughter. This method of slaughter, however, is not allowed under the laws of Norway, which require animals to be stunned before they can be killed. This creates a dilemma for Muslims who wish to live in accordance with Islamic norms. Is it permissible to eat meat which is not slaughtered according to strict interpretations of Islamic law? Various answers have been given, both in Norway and elsewhere. This article describes for the first time the history of the halal debate among Muslims in Norway. I show that the content of halal regulations in the country has been influenced by theology but also by politics, in various bids for influence and status. The approach of the Islamic Council of Norway, the principal organization dictating halal regulations, has shifted no less than four times: from acceptance of stunning, to skepticism, to acceptance, to skepticism, and finally to renewed acceptance. Theological concerns among Muslims have played a role in this process, but social context and politics have been just as important. The debate over the regulation of halal slaughter may provide a window onto broader debates on how Muslim communities adapt Islamic norms to life in societies in which the ethical norms of non-Muslim majorities are often dominant
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