Impact of the introduction of new vaccines and vaccine wastage rate on the cost-effectiveness of routine EPI: lessons from a descriptive study in a Cameroonian health district

The Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) offers services to the population free of charge but these activities are costly with the greatest part being the cost of vaccines. In spite of the growing international solidarity towards funding for immunization, the growing objectives continue to outweigh the available resources. It is therefore crucial for any immunization system to seek greater efficiency so as to optimize the use of available means in a bid to ensure sustainability. It is in this light that we carried out this study which aims to assess the productive efficiency of routine EPI for children aged 0 - 11 months with respect to the fixed and outreach vaccine delivery strategies in Ngong health district. The study is descriptive and cross-sectional. Data were collected retrospectively for all 16 health centers of the district that offered EPI services during the period February - May 2009

THIRTY THREE (33) YEARS ON: AN ASSESSMENT OF ECOWAS TRADE LIBERALIZATION SCHEME AND ECONOMIC INTEGRATION IN THE WEST AFRICAN SUB-REGION

The ECOWAS Trade Liberation Scheme (ETLS) is the main ECOWAS Operational tool in bringing a free trade area and economic interaction for the West African Sub-region. Although there are few minimal achievements of the scheme, there are a lot more obstacles bedevilled the full implementation of the scheme after 44 years it had been drawn up, and 33 years after it became fully operational. Therefore, the crux of this study was an assessment of whether the scheme has succeeded in the creation of a free trade area, customs union and economic integration in the West African sub-region. The study adopted the custom Union theory as the theoretical framework of analysis. The major finding of the work was that there cannot be a free trade area without any products to trade as the lack of export diversification has been one of the major obstacles to attaining a free trade area and economic integration in West Africa. Other findings included but were not limited to, the inadequacies of laid-down policies coupled with the constant circumvention of such policies, the absence of harmonization of policies and standards and much more. In the final analysis, the study recommended among others, the improvement in levels of production in individual member states through policies and programmes, eliminating of all forms of trade barriers as well as the private sector involvement in the decision-making and the implementation process of ECOWAS protocols and schemes for a fair representation of their interest.  Article visualizations

Cooperative Societies and Managerial Competence among Small-Scale Businesses in Odukpani, Cross River State, Nigeria

In this 21st century, Nigeria still faces the big challenge of improving the socio-economic condition of its rural population. Low income and poverty is a perennial problem in Nigeria’s rural communities. This could be attributed to poor or deficient use of the human, natural, environmental and agricultural resources which are available to the rural sector. Primarily, it is the duty of the rural community dwellers themselves to make the best use of these resources which are available to them. This study investigates how cooperative societies can be a tool or strategy for developing managerial competence among small-scale businesses in rural communities of Cross River State using Odukpani as a case study. One hypothesis is tested for the purpose of the study using Analysis of Variance. Ex-post Facto approach is adopted as research design for this study. Ex-post facto is systematic empirical enquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of the independent variables because they are inherently not manipulable. Sample size for the purpose of this study was one hundred forty (140). Twenty persons were selected from each of the seven (7) Wards/Villages which had cooperative societies. The sampling technique used for this research was simple random sampling. In this study, the researcher used questionnaire for data collection. The findings of the study showed that membership of cooperative societies does significantly influence development of managerial competence for business among rural communities of Odukpani. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made

NIGERIA BORDER CLOSURE AND THE ECOWAS PROTOCOL ON FREE MOVEMENT OF PERSONS, RESIDENCE AND ESTABLISHMENT AMONG MEMBER STATES: IMPLICATION FOR ECOWAS SUB-REGIONAL COHESION

This study was on the Nigeria border closure and ECOWAS protocol on the free movement of persons among member states: implications for sub-regional cohesion. Thus, the 2019 policy of Nigeria’s Government to close borders between its neighbours Benin Republic, Cameroon and Niger Republic was followed by the circular issued on 20th August 2019 and disseminated to all border security agents. The people living around border communities largely depend on cross-border trade for their survival, and closing the border has led to difficulty and hardship for those living around the border. On the other part, the government proclaimed that closing its border has numerous benefits and for security reasons which will ensure economic growth and development of Nigeria, whereas member states of the West African sub-region believed this action to be, an affront and counter-productive act to ECOWAS protocol on the free movement of goods and persons in the West African sub-region and for the sub-regional integration at large. Hence, the main objective of this paper was the assessment of the border closure and its implications on sub-regional cohesion. The research study made use of a secondary source of data collection and data from the secondary sources were subjected to qualitative content analysis, with the main purpose of assessing the implication of the border closure on the sub-regional integration as stipulated by the ECOWAS protocol. The Theory of Comparative Advantage as propounded by David Ricardo was adopted for the work. His notion significantly explained the theoretical exploration and analytical discussion of the need for a country to trade and relate with other countries in various ramifications with certain advantages especially when these countries are under a common economic bloc, as the case in ECOWAS. The findings showed among other things that the policy of border closure by the Nigeria government has so far been counter-productive, as other West African member states with particular reference to Ghana, have started rejecting and getting Nigerian goods out of their countries, thereby posing a serious threat to economic cohesion of the sub-region. The study recommended among others that the policy of border closure should always consider the poor people who are about 87 million in Nigeria and became subject to hardship following the closure of cross-border trade. And that such border closure was not necessary when the effort was being made to fully actualize the principles of the ECOWAS protocol as applied to all member states.  Article visualizations

HEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF ALLOXAN-INDUCED DIABETIC RATS TREATED WITH ETHANOL EXTRACTS AND FRACTIONS OF NAUCLEA LAFILOIA LEAF

Hematological parameters which have been implicated in diabetes mellitus were investigated in this study. N-hexane, ethyl acetate, butanol and methanol fractions of the ethanolic leaf extract of Nauclea latifolia were orally administered once daily for 2 weeks to diabetic rats. The levels of RBC, Hb, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, PLT, PCT, MPV, PDW, WBC, lymphocyte and granulocyte were evaluated in blood. There was significant reduction (P < 0.05) in RBC and HCT levels in the treatment groups of ethyl acetate fraction (250 mg/kg) and ethanol extract (250 mg/kg) with significant increases (P < 0.05) in their MCV and MCH levels when compared with the diabetic control group. Significant increases (P < 0.05) in PLT levels of the treatment groups of ethanol extracts, n-hexane fractions and ethyl acetate fraction (100 mg/kg); PCT levels of ethanol extracts group and MPV levels of ethyl acetate fractions treatment groups was high. The treatment groups of glibenclamide, butanol, methanol, n-hexane, ethyl acetate fractions and ethanol extract (250 mg/kg) showed significant reduction (P < 0.05) in their WBC and lymphocyte levels while significant increase (P < 0.05) in granulocyte levels was noted in the treatment group of ethanol extract (100 mg/kg) when compared with diabetic control group. In conclusion, the ethanol extract proved to have anti-infective property. Some fractions, showed capabilities to boost the immune system

Effect of Combined Leaf Extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf) and Gongronema latifolium (Utazi) on the Pancreatic beta-Cells of Streptozotocin- Induced Diabetic Rats

The study evaluated the effect of combined extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (VA) and Gongronema latifolium (GL) on the pancreas of streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic Wistar rats. Thirty-two (32) albino rats were divided equally into 4 groups. Groups A and B which served as normal (NC) and diabetic (DC) controls respectively, received placebo treatment. The diabetic test groups C and D were respectively treated with combined extracts of VA and GL (200mg/kg b. w., p. o.) and insulin, (humulin 5 IU/kg, s.c.) for 28 days. Thereafter, the animals were sacrificed and blood and pancreas were collected for serum glucose and histological evaluation, respectively. Changes in animal weight were also measured within the period. From the results it was revealed that both the combined extracts and humulin significantly increased the animals’ body weight (p<0.05) from -10.5% reduction in the DC, to 7.6% and 8.9% respectively. In the same order, serum glucose significantly decreased (p<0.05) by 12.49% and 14.96% after the 28-day treatment compared to DC. The extent of reversal of hyperglycemia in the extract treated animals compared well with the insulin treated group. The biochemical results were corroborated with results of histological evaluations: The pancreatic β-cells of DC animals which were distorted and degenerated with shrunken cell mass as against prominent islet cells with normal exocrine pancreas of NC animals became rapidly proliferated upon intervention with the combined extracts, suggesting a possible regeneration of the islet cells. On the otherhand, intervention with humulin did not produce observable differences in the cyto-architecture of the pancreatic islets compared to the diabetic control, confirming an extra-pancreatic mechanism of insulin

Factors Affecting Architectural Design for Crime in Nigeria: Role of the Architect

It has been acknowledged by researchers and practitioners of crime prevention that design is an important tool that could be used to prevent crime and reduce fear of crime while increasing sense of community. However, the architect faces several challenges in the attempt to address crime prevention issues in his design. This paper assessed the factors that hinder architects in Nigeria from addressing issues of crime prevention holistically in their designs. Survey research method was adopted for the study. 132 questionnaires were administered to architects in Akwa Ibom and Cross River States of Nigeria. 87 properly filled and returned questionnaires were used for the study. Percentages and mean score analysis and ranking method were used as the analysis tools. Interviews were also carried out with key architects with 12 to 37 years of practice experience. The result revealed the major hindrances to architectural design for crime prevention to include lack of documented examples and no crime prevention requirements in planning and building regulations in Nigeria among others. These factors are knowledge related. This suggests that knowledge has a significant and positive effect on architectural design for crime prevention as it helps architects to take good and informed design decisions. It notes that documented examples have three major functions namely, knowledge sharing, knowledge transfer and knowledge preservation. The paper concluded that these factors affect the ability of architects to design against crime because architectural design is knowledge dependent and knowledge driven. It recommended that physical security concepts and crime prevention through environmental design should be made part of formal architectural education raining and/or professional continuing development programme in Nigeria

Haematological and immunological effect of coadministration of extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Azadirachta indica on normal and diabetic rats

This study evaluated the effect of co-administration of extracts of Vernonia amygdalina Del. (VA) and Azadirachta indica Linn.(AI) on haemapoietic and immunological indices of normal and diabetic rats. White blood cells which were non-significantly decreased (p&gt;0.05) in diabetic control rats relative to the normal control, respectively increased and decreased non-significantly (p&gt;0.05) upon administration of the combined extracts of VA and AI to diabetic and non-diabetic test rats. Packed cell volume, haemoglobin content and red cell count as well as its derived factors (mean cell volume, mean cell haemoglobin and mean cell haemoglobin concentration) of both diabetic and non-diabetic rats were not affected by the treatment, relative to their respective controls. As compared to insulin treatment, the combined extracts significantly increased (p&lt;0.05) mean cell haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) of diabetic rats. Platelets number which was non-significantly lower (p&gt;0.05) in diabetic control rats as compared to non-diabetic control was further decreased non-significantly (p&gt;0.05) upon administration of the combined extracts and insulin. Diabetes induction significantly increased CD4+ count (p&lt;0.05) as compared to the normal control. This was however decreased significantly (p&lt;0.05) upon treatment with the combined extracts and insulin. The combined extract similarly decreased CD4+ counts in normal test rats as compared to the normal control. Combined extracts of VA and AI is non-haematotoxic and may possess some anti-inflammatory properties when used as a management against diabetes mellitus.Key words: Diabetes, haematological and immunological indices, Vernonia amygdalina, Azadirachta indica

The recognition of HIV-1 consensus group M Gag and Nef peptide reagents in mono- and multi-clade epidemics: implications for HIV vaccine design

The high level of genetic diversity of HIV-1 poses a major challenge for global vaccine development. Vaccines based on centralized sequences would minimize genetic distances to multiple clades and potentially maximize cross-reactivity. Whether reactivity of these centralized peptide reagents differs in mono- and multi-clade epidemic is unknown