Auditory cortex reflects goal-directed movement but is not necessary for behavioral adaptation in sound-cued reward tracking

Mounting evidence suggests that the role of sensory cortices in perceptual decision making goes beyond the mere representation of the discriminative stimuli, and additionally involves the representation of non-sensory variables such as reward expectation. However, the relevance of these representations for behavior is not clear. To address this issue, we trained rats to discriminate sounds in a single-interval forced choice task, and then confronted animals with unsignaled blockwise changes of reward probabilities. We found that unequal reward probabilities for the two choice options led to substantial shifts in response bias without concomitant reduction in stimulus discrimination. Although decisional biases were on average less extreme than required to maximize overall reinforcement, a model-based analysis revealed that rats managed to harvest >97 of rewards. Neurons in auditory cortex recorded during task performance weakly differentiated the discriminative stimuli but more strongly the subsequent goal-directed movement. While 10-20 of units exhibited significantly different firing rates between task epochs with different response biases, control experiments showed this to result from inflated false-positive rates resulting from unspecific temporal correlations of spiking activity, rather than changing reinforcement contingencies. Transient pharmacological inactivation of auditory cortex reduced sound discriminability without affecting other measures of performance, whereas inactivation of medial prefrontal cortex affected both discriminability and bias. Together, these results suggest that auditory cortex activity only weakly reflects decisional variables during flexible updating of stimulus-response-outcome contingencies and does not play a crucial role in sound-cued adaptive behavior, beyond the representation of the discriminative stimuli

Towards forensic-ready software systems

As software becomes more ubiquitous, and the risk of cyber-crimes increases, ensuring that software systems are forensic-ready (i.e., capable of supporting potential digital investigations) is critical. However, little or no attention has been given to how well-suited existing software engineering methodologies and practices are for the systematic development of such systems. In this paper, we consider the meaning of forensic readiness of software, define forensic readiness requirements, and highlight some of the open software engineering challenges in the face of forensic readiness. We use a real software system developed to investigate online sharing of child abuse media to illustrate the presented concepts