Multilevel modelling of refusal and noncontact nonresponse in household surveys: evidence from six UK government surveys

This paper analyses household unit nonresponse and interviewer effects in six major UK government surveys using a multilevel multinomial modelling approach. The models are guided by current conceptual frameworks and theories of survey participation. One key feature of the analysis is the investigation of survey dependent and independent effects of household and interviewer characteristics, providing an empirical exploration of the leverage-salience theory. The analysis is based on the 2001 UK Census Link Study, a unique data source containing an unusually rich set of auxiliary variables, linking the response outcome of six surveys to census data, interviewer observation data and interviewer information, available for respondents and nonrespondents

Contraceptive confidence and timing of first birth in Moldova: an event history analysis of retrospective data

Objectives: To test the contraceptive confidence hypothesis in a modern context. The hypothesis is that women using effective or modern contraceptive methods have increased contraceptive confidence and hence a shorter interval between marriage and first birth than users of ineffective or traditional methods. We extend the hypothesis to incorporate the role of abortion, arguing that it acts as a substitute for contraception in the study context.Setting: Moldova, a country in South-East Europe. Moldova exhibits high use of traditional contraceptive methods and abortion compared with other European countries.Participants: Data are from a secondary analysis of the 2005 Moldovan Demographic and Health Survey, a nationally representative sample survey. 5377 unmarried women were selected.Primary and secondary outcome measures: The outcome measure was the interval between marriage and first birth. This was modelled using a piecewise-constant hazard regression, with abortion and contraceptive method types as primary variables along with relevant sociodemographic controls.Results: Women with high contraceptive confidence (modern method users) have a higher cumulative hazard of first birth 36?months following marriage (0.88 (0.87 to 0.89)) compared with women with low contraceptive confidence (traditional method users, cumulative hazard: 0.85 (0.84 to 0.85)). This is consistent with the contraceptive confidence hypothesis. There is a higher cumulative hazard of first birth among women with low (0.80 (0.79 to 0.80)) and moderate abortion propensities (0.76 (0.75 to 0.77)) than women with no abortion propensity (0.73 (0.72 to 0.74)) 24?months after marriage.Conclusions: Effective contraceptive use tends to increase contraceptive confidence and is associated with a shorter interval between marriage and first birth. Increased use of abortion also tends to increase contraceptive confidence and shorten birth duration, although this effect is non-linear—women with a very high use of abortion tend to have lengthy intervals between marriage and first birth

The correlates of natural method use in Moldova: is natural method use associated with poverty and isolation?

Natural method use is often associated with high levels of unwanted births and induced abortions. This study investigates the correlates of natural method use in Moldova, a country with one of the highest proportions of natural contraceptive users in Europe. We hypothesize that economic and spatial disadvantage increase the reliance on natural methods whereas exposure to FP programs decreases the probability of natural method use. The analysis considers a sub-sample of 5860 sexually-active women from the 2005 Demographic and Health Survey. Results from multilevel multinomial models, controlling for relevant characteristics and data structure, show that economic disadvantage increases the probability of natural method use; but the overall effect is small. Higher FP media exposure reduces natural method use; however this effect attenuates with age. We conclude that FP efforts directed towards the poorest may have limited impact, but interventions targeted at older women could reduce the burden of unwanted pregnancies

NCRM Methods Review Papers, NCRM/002. Imputation Methods for Handling Item - Nonresponse in the Social Sciences: A Methodological Review

Missing data are often a problem in social science data. Imputation methods fill in the missing responses and lead, under certain conditions, to valid inference. This article reviews several imputation methods used in the social sciences and discusses advantages and disadvantages of these methods in practice. Simpler imputation methods as well as more advanced methods, such as fractional and multiple imputation, are considered. The paper introduces the reader new to the imputation literature to key ideas and methods. For those already familiar with imputation methods the paper highlights some new developments and clarifies some recent misconceptions in the use of imputation methods. The emphasis is on efficient hot deck imputation methods, implemented in either multiple or fractional imputation approaches. Software packages for using imputation methods in practice are reviewed highlighting newer developments. The paper discusses an example from the social sciences in detail, applying several imputation methods to a missing earnings variable. The objective is to illustrate how to choose between methods in a real data example. A simulation study evaluates various imputation methods, including predictive mean matching, fractional and multiple imputation. Certain forms of fractional and multiple hot deck methods are found to perform well with regards to bias and efficiency of a point estimator and robustness against model misspecifications. Standard parametric imputation methods are not found adequate for the application considered

Do interviewers moderate the effect of monetary incentives on response rates in household interview surveys?

As citizens around the world become ever more reluctant to respond to survey interview requests, incentives are playing an increasingly important role in maintaining response rates. In face-to-face surveys, interviewers are the key conduit of information about the existence and level of any incentive offered and, therefore, potentially moderate the effectiveness with which an incentive translates nonproductive addresses into interviews. Yet, while the existing literature on the effects of incentives on response rates is substantial, little is currently known about the role of interviewers in determining whether or not incentives are effective. In this article, we apply multilevel models to three different face-to-face interview surveys from the United Kingdom, which vary in their sample designs and incentive levels, to assess whether some interviewers are more successful than others in using incentives to leverage cooperation. Additionally, we link the response outcome data to measures of interviewer characteristics to investigate whether interviewer variability on this dimension is systematically related to level of experience and demographic characteristics. Our results show significant and substantial variability between interviewers in the effectiveness of monetary incentives on the probability of cooperation across all three surveys. However, none of the interviewer characteristics considered are significantly associated with more or less successful interviewers

Onlinebefragungen auf mobilen Endgeräten: Potentiale und Herausforderungen

Zentraler Vorteil von Onlinebefragungen auf mobilen Endgeräten (Tablet, Smartphone) ist ihre Allgegenwart und ihr technologisches Potenzial. Umfragemethodisch sind solche Befragungen jedoch eine Herausforderung und die Konsequenzen für die Datenqualität nicht ignorierbar

Data set representativeness during data collection in three UK social surveys: generalizability and the effects of auxiliary covariate choice

We consider the use of representativeness indicators to monitor risks of non‐response bias during survey data collection. The analysis benefits from use of a unique data set linking call record paradata from three UK social surveys to census auxiliary attribute information on sample households. We investigate the utility of census information for this purpose and the performance of representativeness indicators (the R‐indicator and the coefficient of variation of response propensities) in monitoring representativeness over call records. We also investigate the extent and effects of misspecification of auxiliary covariate sets used in indicator computation and design phase capacity points in call records beyond which survey data set improvements are minimal, and whether such points are generalizable across surveys. Given our findings, we then offer guidance to survey practitioners on the use of such methods and implications for optimizing data collection and efficiency savings

Do coefficients of variation of response propensities approximate non‐response biases during survey data collection?

We evaluate the utility of coefficients of variation of response propensities (CVs) as measures of risks of survey variable non‐response biases when monitoring survey data collection. CVs quantify variation in sample response propensities estimated given a set of auxiliary attribute covariates observed for all subjects. If auxiliary covariates and survey variables are correlated, low levels of propensity variation imply low bias risk. CVs can also be decomposed to measure associations between auxiliary covariates and propensity variation, informing collection method modifications and post‐collection adjustments to improve dataset quality. Practitioners are interested in such approaches to managing bias risks, but risk indicator performance has received little attention. We describe relationships between CVs and expected biases and how they inform quality improvements during and post‐data collection, expanding on previous work. Next, given auxiliary information from the concurrent 2011 UK census and details of interview attempts, we use CVs to quantify the representativeness of the UK Labour Force Survey dataset during data collection. Following this, we use survey data to evaluate inference based on CVs concerning survey variables with analogues measuring the same quantities among the auxiliary covariate set. Given our findings, we then offer advice on using CVs to monitor survey data collection

Analysing the probability of attrition in a longitudinal survey

This paper aims to analyse predictors of attrition in a major UK longitudinal survey, the Family and Children Study, and thus to contribute to a deeper understanding ofthe process and reasons for attrition as a social phenomenon. Multilevel modelling techniques are used to analyse attrition across several waves accounting for clustering of sample members within interviewers. The models are guided by current conceptual frameworks and theories of survey participation. The analysis also explores the role of the interviewer in gaining cooperation in a longitudinal study, in particular investigating effects of changes of interviewers across waves. An advantage of the data is that relatively rich information on both respondents and non-respondents is available from early waves and from interviewer observation

Analysing the process leading to cooperation or refusal using call record data: A multilevel multinomial modelling approach

In recent years, survey agencies have started to collect detailed call record data, including information on the timing and outcome of each interviewer call to a household. In interviewbased household surveys, effective interviewer calling behaviours are critical in achieving cooperation and reducing the likelihood of refusal. This paper aims to analyze interviewer call record data to inform the process leading to cooperation or refusal in face-to-face surveys. Of particular interest are the influences on the outcome of a call of interactions between the interviewer and householder and of time-varying characteristics of the call. A multilevel multinomial logistic regression approach is used in which the different possible outcomes at each call are modelled jointly