In Situ Measurement Activities at the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office

The NASA Orbital Debris Program Office has been involved in the development of several particle impact instruments since 2003. The main objective of this development is to eventually conduct in situ measurements to better characterize the small (millimeter or smaller) orbital debris and micrometeoroid populations in the near-Earth environment. In addition, the Office also supports similar instrument development to define the micrometeoroid and lunar secondary ejecta environment for future lunar exploration activities. The instruments include impact acoustic sensors, resistive grid sensors, fiber optic displacement sensors, and impact ionization sensors. They rely on different mechanisms and detection principles to identify particle impacts. A system consisting of these different sensors will provide data that are complimentary to each other, and will provide a better description of the physical and dynamical properties (e.g., size, mass, and impact speed) of the particles in the environment. Details of several systems being considered by the Office and their intended mission objectives are summarized in this paper

Post-perihelion photometry of dust grains in the coma of 67P Churyumov-Gerasimenko

We present a photometric analysis of individual dust grains in the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko using OSIRIS images taken from 2015 July to 2016 January. We analysed a sample of 555 taken during 18 d at heliocentric distances ranging between 1.25 and 2.04 au and at nucleocentric distances between 80 and 437 km. An automated method to detect the tracks was specifically developed. The images were taken by OSIRIS NAC in four different filters: Near-IR (882 nm), Orange (649 nm), FarOrange (649 nm) and Blue (480 nm). It was not always possible to recognize all the grains in the four filters, hence we measured the spectral slope in two wavelengths ranges: in the interval [480-649] nm, for 1179 grains, and in the interval [649-882] nm, for 746 grains. We studied the evolution of the two populations' average spectral slopes. The data result scattered around the average value in the range [480-649] nm, while in the [649-882] nm we observe a slight decreasing moving away from the Sun as well as a slight increasing with the nucleocentric distance. A spectrophotometric analysis was performed on a subsample of 339 grains. Three major groups were defined, based on the spectral slope between [535-882] nm: (i) the steep spectra that may be related with organic material, (ii) the spectra with an intermediate slope, likely a mixture of silicates and organics and (iii) flat spectra that may be associated with a high abundance of water ice

Distance determination method of dust particles using Rosetta OSIRIS NAC and WAC data

The ESA Rosetta spacecraft has been tracking its target, the Jupiter-family comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, in close vicinity for over two years. It hosts the OSIRIS instruments: the Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging System composed of two cameras, see e.g. Keller et al. (2007). In some imaging sequences dedicated to observe dust particles in the comet's coma, the two cameras took images at the same time. The aim of this work is to use these simultaneous double camera observations to calculate the dust particles’ distance to the spacecraft. As the two cameras are mounted on the spacecraft with an offset of 70 cm, the distance of particles observed by both cameras can be determined by a shift of the particles’ apparent trails on the images. This paper presents first results of the ongoing work, introducing the distance determination method for the OSIRIS instrument and the analysis of an example particle. We note that this method works for particles in the range of about 500–6000 m from the spacecraft

The scattering phase function of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko coma as seen from the Rosetta/OSIRIS instrument

The study of dust, the most abundant material in cometary nuclei, is pivotal in understanding the original materials forming the Solar system. Measuring the coma phase function provides a tool to investigate the nature of cometary dust. Rosetta/OSIRIS sampled the coma phase function of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, covering a large phase angle range in a small amount of time. Twelve series were acquired in the period from 2015 March to 2016 February for this scientific purpose. These data allowed, after stray light removal, measuring the phase function shape, its reddening, and phase reddening while varying heliocentric and nucleocentric distances. Despite small dissimilarities within different series, we found a constant overall shape. The reflectance has a u-shape with minimum at intermediate phase angles, reaching similar values at the smallest and largest phase angle sampled. The comparison with cometary phase functions in literature indicates OSIRIS curves being consistent with the ones found in many other single comets. The dust has a negligible phase reddening at α < 90°, indicating a coma dominated by single scattering.We measured a reddening of [11-14] %/100 nm between 376 and 744 nm. No trend with heliocentric or nucleocentric distance was found, indicating the coma doesn't change its spectrum with time. These results are consistent with single coma grains and close-nucleus coma photometric results. Comparison with nucleus photometry indicates a different backscattering phase function shape and similar reddening values only at α < 30°. At larger phase angles, the nucleus becomes significantly redder than the coma

Dust mass distribution around comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko determined via parallax measurements using Rosetta's OSIRIS cameras

The OSIRIS (optical, spectroscopic and infrared remote imaging system) instrument on board the ESA Rosetta spacecraft collected data of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko for over 2 yr. OSIRIS consists of two cameras, a Narrow Angle Camera and a Wide Angle Camera. For specific imaging sequences related to the observation of dust aggregates in 67P's coma, the two cameras were operating simultaneously. The two cameras are mounted 0.7 m apart from each other, as a result this baseline yields a parallax shift of the apparent particle trails on the analysed images directly proportional to their distance. Thanks to such shifts, the distance between observed dust aggregates and the spacecraft was determined. This method works for particles closer than 6000 m to the spacecraft and requires very few assumptions. We found over 250 particles in a suitable distance range with sizes of some centimetres, masses in the range of 10-6-102 kg and a mean velocity of about 2.4 m s-1 relative to the nucleus. Furthermore, the spectral slope was analysed showing a decrease in the median spectral slope of the particles with time. The further a particle is from the spacecraft the fainter is its signal. For this reason, this was counterbalanced by a debiasing. Moreover, the dust mass-loss rate of the nucleus could be computed as well as the Af ρ of the comet around perihelion. The summed-up dust mass-loss rate for the mass bins 10-4-102 kg is almost 8300 kg s-1

Investigating the physical properties of outbursts on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

Cometary outbursts on several comets have been observed both by ground-based telescopes and by in situ instruments on spacecraft. However, the mechanism behind these phenomena and their physical properties are still unclear. The optical, spectrocopic and infrared remote imaging system (OSIRIS) onboard the Rosetta spacecraft provided first-hand information on the outbursts from comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko during its perihelion passage in 2015. The physical properties of the outbursts can be investigated by examining the time series of these high-resolution images. An analysis is made of the wide- and narrow-angle images obtained during the monitoring of the outburst sequences, which occurred between July and September in 2015. A ring-masking technique is used to calculate the excess brightness of the outbursts. The ejected mass and expansion velocity of the outbursts is estimated from differences in images made with the same filter (orange filter). The calculated excess brightness from these outburst plumes ranges from a few per cent to 28 per cent. In some major outbursts, the brightness contribution from the outburst plume can be one or two times higher than that of the typical coma jet activities. The strongest event was the perihelion outburst detected just a few hours before perihelion. The mass ejection rate during a generic outburst could reach a few per cent of the steady-state value of the dust coma. Transient events are detected by studying the brightness slope of the outburst plume with continuous streams of outflowing gas and dust triggered by driving mechanisms, as yet not understood, which remain active for several minutes to less than a few hours

Luminous efficiency based on FRIPON meteors and limitations of ablation models

Context. In meteor physics, the luminous efficiency τ is used to convert the meteor's magnitude to the corresponding meteoroid's mass. However, a lack of sufficiently accurate verification methods or adequate laboratory tests mean that discussions around this parameter are a subject of controversy. Aims: In this work, we aim to use meteor data obtained by the Fireball Recovery and InterPlanetary Observation to calculate the luminous efficiencies of the recorded meteors. We also show the limitations of the methods presented herein. Methods: Deceleration-based formulas were used to calculate the masses of the pre-atmospheric meteoroids. These can in turn be compared to the meteor brightnesses to assess the luminous efficiencies of the recorded objects. Fragmentation of the meteoroids is not considered within this model. Good measurements of the meteor deceleration are required. Results: We find τ-values, as well as the shape change coefficients, of 294 meteors and fireballs with determined masses in the range of 10^−6 / -100 kg. The derived τ-values have a median of τ_median = 2.17%. Most of them are of the order of 0.1-10%. We present how our values are obtained, compare them with data reported in the literature, and discuss several methods. A dependence of τ on the pre-atmospheric velocity of the meteor, ve, is noticeable with a relation of τ = 0.0023⋅ve^2.3. Furthermore, a dependence of τ on the initial meteoroid mass, Me, is found with negative linear behaviour in log-log space: τ = 0.48⋅Me/−0.47. Conclusions: The higher luminous efficiency of fast meteors could be explained by the higher amount of energy released. Fast meteoroids produce additional emission lines that radiate more efficiently in specific wavelengths due to the appearance of the so-called second component of higher temperature. Furthermore, the negative dependence of τ on Me implies that the radiation of smaller meteoroids is more efficient. The results of this study also show the limitations of the ablation-based model for the determination of the luminous efficiency

Characterization of dust aggregates in the vicinity of the Rosetta spacecraft

In a Rosetta/OSIRIS imaging activity in 2015 June, we have observed the dynamic motion of particles close to the spacecraft. Due to the focal setting of the OSIRIS wide angle camera, these particles were blurred, which can be used to measure their distances to the spacecraft. We detected 109 dust aggregates over a 130 min long sequence, and find that their sizes are around a millimetre and their distances cluster between 2 and 40 m from the spacecraft. Their number densities are about a factor 10 higher than expected for the overall coma and highly fluctuating. Their velocities are small compared to the spacecraft orbital motion and directed away from the spacecraft, towards the comet. From this we conclude that they have interacted with the spacecraft and assess three possible scenarios. In the likeliest of the three scenarios, centimetre-sized aggregates collide with the spacecraft and we would observe the fragments. Ablation of a dust layer on the spacecraft's z panel (remote instrument viewing direction) when rotated towards the Sun is a reasonable alternative. We could also measure an acceleration for a subset of 18 aggregates, which is directed away from the Sun and can be explain by a rocket effect, which requires a minimum ice fraction of the order of 0.1 per cent

Luminous efficiency of meteors derived from ablation model after assessment of its range of validity

Drolshagen, E., et al.[Context] The luminous efficiency, τ, can be used to compute the pre-Atmospheric masses of meteoroids from corresponding recorded meteor brightnesses. The derivation of the luminous efficiency is non-Trivial and is subject to biases and model assumptions. This has led to greatly varying results in the last decades of studies. [Aims] The present paper aims to investigate how a reduction in various observational biases can be achieved to derive (more) reliable values for the luminous efficiency. [Methods] A total of 281 meteors observed by the Fireball Recovery and InterPlanetary Observation Network (FRIPON) are studied. The luminous efficiencies of the events are computed using an ablation-based model. The relations of τ as a function of the pre-Atmospheric meteoroid velocity, ve, and mass, Me, are studied. Various aspects that could render the method less valid, cause inaccuracies, or bias the results are investigated. On this basis, the best suitable meteors were selected for luminous efficiency computations. [Results] The presented analysis shows the limits of the used method. The most influential characteristics that are necessary for reliable results for the τ computation were identified. We study the dependence of τ on the assumed meteoroid's density, ρ, and include improved ρ-values for objects with identified meteoroid stream association. Based on the discovered individual biases and constraints we create a pre-debiased subset of 54 well-recorded events with a relative velocity change >80%, a final height <70 km, and a Knudsen number Kn < 0.01; this last value indicates that the events were observed in the continuum-flow regime. We find τ-values in the range between 0.012% and 1.1% for this pre-debiased subset and relations of τ to ve and Me of: τ=7.33â ve-1.10 and τ=0.28â Me-0.33. [Conclusions] The derived luminous efficiency of meteoroids depends on the assumed material density. Our results indicate that the applied debiasing method improves the analysis of τ from decelerated meteoroids. The underlying method is only valid for meteors in the continuum-flow regime. These events tend to have low end heights, large masses, and high deceleration