The Dark Side of Goal Setting: The Role of Goals in Motivating Unethical Decision Making

A substantial literature has demonstrated that goal setting improves task performance (Locke & Latham, 1990). In this article we explore the proposition that challenging goals motivate not only constructive behavior, but also unethical behavior such as lying and cheating. We conducted eight scenario studies and an anagram experiment, and find support for our thesis. Respondents rated individuals with unmet goals as significantly more likely to engage in unethical behavior than similar individuals attempting to do their best or with met goals. Similarly, participants in the goal conditions in our experiment were significantly more likely to misrepresent their productivity in an anagram task than were participants in the do your best condition. This relationship was particularly strong when people had reward rather than mere goals, and when people were just short of reaching the goal. We explain our results in terms of the reference point adoption process consistent with Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979), and identify specific contributions to goal setting theory and management practice

Characteristics of relativistic microburst intensity from SAMPEX observations

Relativistic electron microbursts are an important electron loss process from the radiation belts into the atmosphere. These precipitation events have been shown to significantly impact the radiation belt fluxes and atmospheric chemistry. In this study we address a lack of knowledge about the relativistic microburst intensity using measurements of 21,746 microbursts from the Solar Anomalous Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX). We find that the relativistic microburst intensity increases as we move inward in L, with a higher proportion of low‐intensity microbursts (2,250 [MeV cm2 sr s]−1) in the 03–11 magnetic local time region increases as geomagnetic activity increases, consistent with changes in the whistler mode chorus wave activity. Comparisons between relativistic microburst properties and trapped fluxes suggest that the microburst intensities are not limited by the trapped flux present alongside the scattering processes. However, microburst activity appears to correspond to the changing trapped flux; more microbursts occur when the trapped fluxes are enhancing, suggesting that microbursts are linked to processes causing the increased trapped fluxes. Finally, modeling of the impact of a published microburst spectra on a flux tube shows that microbursts are capable of depleting <500‐keV electrons within 1 hr and depleting higher‐energy electrons in 1–23 hr

Augmenting solute clearance in peritoneal dialysis

Augmenting solute clearance in peritoneal dialysis.BackgroundThe removal of low molecular weight solutes by peritoneal dialysis is less than by hemodialysis. The targets for Kt/Vurea and creatinine clearance formulated in the Dialysis Outcome Quality Initiative are unlikely to be achieved in a substantial portion of peritoneal dialysis patients. Possibilities to increase small solute clearances have therefore been subject to many investigations.MethodsA review of the literature and of recent new data on determinants of solute removal, such as residual renal function, the role of drained dialysate volume and manipulation of the diffusive capacity of the peritoneum are presented.ResultsThe contribution of residual GFR is more important for the clearance of creatinine than for Kt/Vurea. It is even more important for the removal of organic acids that are removed from the body by tubular secretion. High dosages of furosemide increase the urinary volume and the fractional Na+ excretion, but have no effect on the magnitude of residual GFR, renal creatinine clearance, renal urea clearance, and peritoneal transport characteristics. The drained dialysate volume per day is the main determinant of the peritoneal removal of urea. Its effect decreases the higher the molecular weight of a solute. It can be augmented by using large instillation volumes, by the application of more exchanges, and by increasing peritoneal ultrafiltration. A large exchange volume is especially effective in patients with an average transport state, but in those with high solute transport rates, Kt/Vurea is especially influenced by the number of exchanges. Possibilities to increase ultrafiltration are discussed. The diffusive capacity of the peritoneum can be augmented by using low dosages of intraperitoneally administered nitroprusside. This increases solute transport most markedly when it is applied in combination with icodextrin as osmotic agent.ConclusionsSmall solutes clearances cannot be increased by furosemide. Increasing the instilled volume of dialysis fluid and the number of exchanges both affect solute clearance. Studies are necessary on long-term effects of manipulation of the peritoneal membrane with nitroprusside

Lower leukotriene C4 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of asthmatic subjects after 2.5 years of inhaled corticosteroid therapy

Long-term treatment with inhaled corticosteroids has been shown to result in improvement of symptoms and lung function in subjects with asthma. Arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites are thought to play a role in the pathophysiology of asthma. It was assessed whether differences could be found in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) AA metabolite levels between subjects with asthma who were treated for 2.5 years with inhaled bronchodilators alone or in combination with inhaled corticosteroids. Prostaglandin (PG)D2, PGF2α, 6-keto-PGF1α, thromboxane B2, leukotriene (LT)C4 and LTB4 levels and cell numbers were assessed in BAL fluid from 22 non-smoking asthmatic subjects. They were participating in a randomized, double-blind multicentre drug trial over a period of 2.5 years. Results of the group treated with inhaled corticosteroids (CS+: beclomethasone 200 μg four times daily) were compared with the other group (CS−) which was treated with either ipratropium bromide (40 μg four times daily) or placebo. BAL LTC4 levels of asthmatic subjects were significantly lower after 2.5 years inhaled corticosteroid therapy (CS+, 9(1–17) pg/ml vs. CS−, 16(6-53) pg/ml; p = 0.01). The same trend was observed for the PGD2 levels. The results suggest that inhaled corticosteroids may exert their beneficial effect on lung function via a mechanism in which inhibition of LTC4 synthesis in the airways is involved

Quantification of Movement in Stroke Patients under Free Living Conditions Using Wearable Sensors:A Systematic Review

Stroke is a main cause of long-term disability worldwide, placing a large burden on individuals and health care systems. Wearable technology can potentially objectively assess and monitor patients outside clinical environments, enabling a more detailed evaluation of their impairment and allowing individualization of rehabilitation therapies. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of setups used in literature to measure movement of stroke patients under free living conditions using wearable sensors, and to evaluate the relation between such sensor-based outcomes and the level of functioning as assessed by existing clinical evaluation methods. After a systematic search we included 32 articles, totaling 1076 stroke patients from acute to chronic phases and 236 healthy controls. We summarized the results by type and location of sensors, and by sensor-based outcome measures and their relation with existing clinical evaluation tools. We conclude that sensor-based measures of movement provide additional information in relation to clinical evaluation tools assessing motor functioning and both are needed to gain better insight in patient behavior and recovery. However, there is a strong need for standardization and consensus, regarding clinical assessments, but also regarding the use of specific algorithms and metrics for unsupervised measurements during daily life

Reliability of the Q Force; a mobile instrument for measuring isometric quadriceps muscle strength

BACKGROUND: The ability to generate muscle strength is a pre-requisite for all human movement. Decreased quadriceps muscle strength is frequently observed in older adults and is associated with a decreased performance and activity limitations. To quantify the quadriceps muscle strength and to monitor changes over time, instruments and procedures with a sufficient reliability are needed. The Q Force is an innovative mobile muscle strength measurement instrument suitable to measure in various degrees of extension. Measurements between 110 and 130° extension present the highest values and the most significant increase after training. The objective of this study is to determine the test-retest reliability of muscle strength measurements by the Q Force in older adults in 110° extension. METHODS: Forty-one healthy older adults, 13 males and 28 females were included in the study. Mean (SD) age was 81.9 (4.89) years. Isometric muscle strength of the Quadriceps muscle was assessed with the Q Force at 110° of knee extension. Participants were measured at two sessions with a three to eight day interval between sessions. To determine relative reliability, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated. To determine absolute reliability, Bland and Altman Limits of Agreement (LOA) were calculated and t-tests were performed. RESULTS: Relative reliability of the Q Force is good to excellent as all ICC coefficients are higher than 0.75. Generally a large 95 % LOA, reflecting only moderate absolute reliability, is found as exemplified for the peak torque left leg of -18.6 N to 33.8 N and the right leg of -9.2 N to 26.4 N was between 15.7 and 23.6 Newton representing 25.2 % to 39.9 % of the size of the mean. Small systematic differences in mean were found between measurement session 1 and 2. CONCLUSION: The present study shows that the Q Force has excellent relative test-retest reliability, but limited absolute test-retest reliability. Since the Q Force is relatively cheap and mobile it is suitable for application in various clinical settings, however, its capability to detect changes in muscle force over time is limited but comparable to existing instruments

X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure (XANES) at the O K-Edge of Bulk Co₃O₄: Experimental and Theoretical Studies

We combine theoretical and experimental X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) to probe the local environment around cationic sites of bulk spinel cobalt tetraoxide (Co3O4). Specifically, we analyse the oxygen K-edge spectrum. We find an excellent agreement between our calculated spectra based on the density functional theory and the projector augmented wave method, previous calculations as well as with the experiment. The oxygen K-edge spectrum shows a strong pre-edge peak which can be ascribed to dipole transitions from O 1s to O 2p states hybridized with the unoccu- pied 3d states of cobalt atoms. Also, since Co3O4 contains two types of Co atoms, i.e., Co3+ and Co2+, we find that contribution of Co2+ ions to the pre-edge peak is solely due to single spin-polarized t2g orbitals (dxz, dyz, and dxy) while that of Co3+ ions is due to spin-up and spin-down polarized eg orbitals (dx2−y2 and dz2 ). Furthermore, we deduce the magnetic moments on the Co3+ and Co2+ to be zero and 3.00 μB respectively. This is consistent with an earlier experimental study which found that the magnetic structure of Co3O4 consists of antiferromagnetically ordered Co2+ spins, each of which is surrounded by four nearest neighbours of oppositely directed spins

Do patients’ information needs decrease over the course of radiotherapy?

PURPOSE: We aimed to investigate if cancer patients’ information needs decrease during radiotherapy and if so, which patient, consultation and radiation oncologist characteristics are associated with a decrease in information needs over time. METHODS: In this longitudinal study, patients (n = 104) completed a baseline questionnaire a week before the initial radiotherapy consultation, immediately following this initial consultation, and 1 week prior to the first follow-up visit, which took place on average 3–5 weeks after the initial visit. Besides information needs, measured by the Information Preference for Radiotherapy Patients scale, the questionnaire assessed patient, consultation and radiation oncologist characteristics. RESULTS: Information needs decreased over time, but remained at a high level. Being religious, being male, having low health literacy and higher perceived involvement during the consultation were all statistically significantly associated to a decrease in information needs on specific domains (e.g. procedures or side effects). CONCLUSIONS: Cancer patients’ information needs decline between the initial consultation and the first follow-up visit, but remain high. It is therefore advised to investigate the patients’ information needs at every radiotherapy visit and not rely on giving information just once. Furthermore, radiation oncologists should check if the information given at first consultation is understood and remembered. By those means, tailored information giving becomes possible