Glycosidase Hydrolase family 13 annotation.

Phlebotomine sand flies are of global significance as important vectors of human disease, transmitting bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens, including the kinetoplastid parasites of the genus Leishmania, the causative agents of devastating diseases collectively termed leishmaniasis. More than 40 pathogenic Leishmania species are transmitted to humans by approximately 35 sand fly species in 98 countries with hundreds of millions of people at risk around the world. No approved efficacious vaccine exists for leishmaniasis and available therapeutic drugs are either toxic and/or expensive, or the parasites are becoming resistant to the more recently developed drugs. Therefore, sand fly and/or reservoir control are currently the most effective strategies to break transmission. To better understand the biology of sand flies, including the mechanisms involved in their vectorial capacity, insecticide resistance, and population structures we sequenced the genomes of two geographically widespread and important sand fly vector species: Phlebotomus papatasi, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause cutaneous leishmaniasis, (distributed in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa) and Lutzomyia longipalpis, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause visceral leishmaniasis (distributed across Central and South America). We categorized and curated genes involved in processes important to their roles as disease vectors, including chemosensation, blood feeding, circadian rhythm, immunity, and detoxification, as well as mobile genetic elements. We also defined gene orthology and observed micro-synteny among the genomes. Finally, we present the genetic diversity and population structure of these species in their respective geographical areas. These genomes will be a foundation on which to base future efforts to prevent vector-borne transmission of Leishmania parasites.</div

Conflicting phylogenetic signals.

Analysis of the gene phylogenies of individual orthologous groups identified three major topologies with sand fly-mosquito (41%), sand fly-fly (37%), or mosquito-fly (22%) sister clades. Comparisons of average branch lengths for each topology suggest that, although substitution rates in flies are always higher, orthologs that support the sand fly-mosquito topology show the lowest substitution rates in flies and the smallest differences in substitution rates among the fly, sand fly, and mosquito clades. In contrast, the sand fly-fly and mosquito-fly topologies show much higher substitution rates in flies and much greater differences in substitution rates among the three clades. (TIF)</p

<i>Phlebotomus papatasi</i> circadian rhythm pathway annotation.

Phlebotomus papatasi circadian rhythm pathway annotation.</p

Admixture cross validation error.

Violin plot of the cross-validation error for each of 30 replicates for each K value. (A) Phlebotomus papatasi populations. (B) Lutzomyia longipalpis populations. (TIF)</p

<i>Lutzomyia longipalpis</i> population structure.

Inferred population structure of Lu. longipalpis individuals collected from Marajó (MAR; pink), Lapinha (LAP; blue), from Jacobina (JAC; red), and Sobral, including Sobral 1S (S1S; orange) and 16 Sobral 2S (S2S; green). (A) Rooted neighbor joining (NJ) radial tree. We included both N. intermedia (INT; yellow) and M. migonei (MIG; purple) and used M. migonei to root the trees. Bootstrap values represent the percentage of 1,000 replicates. (B) Principal component analysis (PCA). Individuals were plotted according to their coordinates on the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2). (C) Admixture analysis. Ancestry proportions for Admixture models from K = 2 to K = 7 ancestral populations. Each individual is represented by a thin vertical line, partitioned into K coloured segments representing the individual’s estimated membership fractions to the K clusters. These data are the average of the major q-matrix clusters derived by CLUMPAK analysis.</p

Chitinase family annotation.

Phlebotomine sand flies are of global significance as important vectors of human disease, transmitting bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens, including the kinetoplastid parasites of the genus Leishmania, the causative agents of devastating diseases collectively termed leishmaniasis. More than 40 pathogenic Leishmania species are transmitted to humans by approximately 35 sand fly species in 98 countries with hundreds of millions of people at risk around the world. No approved efficacious vaccine exists for leishmaniasis and available therapeutic drugs are either toxic and/or expensive, or the parasites are becoming resistant to the more recently developed drugs. Therefore, sand fly and/or reservoir control are currently the most effective strategies to break transmission. To better understand the biology of sand flies, including the mechanisms involved in their vectorial capacity, insecticide resistance, and population structures we sequenced the genomes of two geographically widespread and important sand fly vector species: Phlebotomus papatasi, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause cutaneous leishmaniasis, (distributed in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa) and Lutzomyia longipalpis, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause visceral leishmaniasis (distributed across Central and South America). We categorized and curated genes involved in processes important to their roles as disease vectors, including chemosensation, blood feeding, circadian rhythm, immunity, and detoxification, as well as mobile genetic elements. We also defined gene orthology and observed micro-synteny among the genomes. Finally, we present the genetic diversity and population structure of these species in their respective geographical areas. These genomes will be a foundation on which to base future efforts to prevent vector-borne transmission of Leishmania parasites.</div

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of <i>Lu</i>. <i>longipalpis</i>, <i>P</i>. <i>papatasi</i> and <i>D</i>. <i>melanogaster</i> TRP channel sequences.

The different TRP subfamilies are displayed on the right. The evolutionary history was inferred by using the Maximum Likelihood method based on the Whelan and Goldman +Freq. model with 1000 bootstrap replicates. (TIF)</p

Distribution plots of the pairwise <i>F</i>_<i>ST</i> between the different populations of <i>Lutzomyia longipalpis</i>.

Weighted FST values for 1kb non-overlapping windows were calculated across the genome for each population comparison. (TIF)</p

<i>Phlebotomus papatasi</i> population variant summary statistics.

Phlebotomus papatasi population variant summary statistics.</p

Assembly statistics.

Phlebotomine sand flies are of global significance as important vectors of human disease, transmitting bacterial, viral, and protozoan pathogens, including the kinetoplastid parasites of the genus Leishmania, the causative agents of devastating diseases collectively termed leishmaniasis. More than 40 pathogenic Leishmania species are transmitted to humans by approximately 35 sand fly species in 98 countries with hundreds of millions of people at risk around the world. No approved efficacious vaccine exists for leishmaniasis and available therapeutic drugs are either toxic and/or expensive, or the parasites are becoming resistant to the more recently developed drugs. Therefore, sand fly and/or reservoir control are currently the most effective strategies to break transmission. To better understand the biology of sand flies, including the mechanisms involved in their vectorial capacity, insecticide resistance, and population structures we sequenced the genomes of two geographically widespread and important sand fly vector species: Phlebotomus papatasi, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause cutaneous leishmaniasis, (distributed in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa) and Lutzomyia longipalpis, a vector of Leishmania parasites that cause visceral leishmaniasis (distributed across Central and South America). We categorized and curated genes involved in processes important to their roles as disease vectors, including chemosensation, blood feeding, circadian rhythm, immunity, and detoxification, as well as mobile genetic elements. We also defined gene orthology and observed micro-synteny among the genomes. Finally, we present the genetic diversity and population structure of these species in their respective geographical areas. These genomes will be a foundation on which to base future efforts to prevent vector-borne transmission of Leishmania parasites.</div