Postdural puncture headache: evidence-based review for primary care

The promotion of epidural and spinal blocks as preferred and safe techniques for Caesarean section and the use of lumbar puncture for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes place patients at risk of developing postdural puncture headache (PDPH). This article reviews the literature for evidence that provides an approach to diagnosis and management of this condition for the primary care physician. A dull and throbbing, bilateral headache associated with changes in posture (worsened by sitting and standing, and better lying down), that develops within seven days of a lumbar puncture or an inadvertent dural puncture must raise the suspicion of PDPH. The exact causative mechanism is unclear but symptoms of PDPH are generally attributed to excessive loss of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The risk of PDPH is increased with the use of cutting and large-bore needles, and with horizontal orientation of the needle bevel. Given that symptoms overlap, other organic causes of headache such as intracerebral/subdural haemorrhage, pneumocephalus, central nervous system infections, adverse effects of anticoagulants and functional headaches such as migraine must be excluded. Although the initial management of PDPH comprises several conservative interventions, evidence is only available for the effectiveness of the usage of caffeine, analgesics, gabapectin, hydrocortisone, dexamethasone and cosyntropin. Epidural blood patch (EDBP) offers the most favourable outcomes for patients who fail to respond to conservative management. However, given the lack of skills for performing EDBP in primary care, such patients should be referred to secondary or tertiary level of care

Entrepreneurial Competencies of SME Owners: A Comparative Exploratory Analysis between Iran and Italy

This chapter explores competencies of business owners in Iran and Italy. It presents the findings of an exploratory analysis of the entrepreneurial competencies that qualify and motivate business owners to successfully manage their business and overcome the challenges and complexities of leading a small and medium sized enterprise (SME) in the business environment of a developing and a developed nation. The participants were 143 SME owners; 83 from Iran and 60 from Italy. The findings demonstrated differences between entrepreneurial competencies of SME owners in the business context of the two countries. More specifically, SME owners in Iran had higher orientation toward learning and were more independent while their Italian counterparts had higher insight into the market and ability to persuade. The findings are discussed in light of their implications for research and practice in both countries