Nuclear Factor E2-related Factor-2 (Nrf2) Is Required for NLRP3 and AIM2 Inflammasome Activation

Despite the number of extensive studies on the immune function and signaling of inflammasomes in various diseases, the activating mechanism of inflammasome, especially the NLRP3 inflammasome, is not fully understood. Nuclear factor E2-related Factor-2 (Nrf2), a key transcription factor that regulates cellular redox homeostasis, has been reported to play both protective and pathogenic roles depending on the disease conditions through undefined mechanism. This study reveals an essential role of Nrf2 in inflammasome activation. LPS stimulation increased Nrf2 protein levels in a Myd88-dependent manner. When compared with wild-type controls, Nrf2-deficient (Nrf2−/−) macrophages showed decreased maturation and secretion of caspase-1 and IL-1β and reduced apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD (ASC) speck formation in response to various NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasome stimuli. In contrast, NLRC4 inflammasome activation was not controlled by Nrf2. Biochemical analysis revealed that Nrf2 appeared in the ASC-enriched cytosolic compartment after NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Furthermore, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-induced NLRP3 activation also required Nrf2. Nrf2−/− mice showed a dramatic decrease in immune cell recruitment and IL-1β generation in alum-induced peritonitis, which is a typical IL-1 signaling-dependent inflammation animal model. This work discovered a critical proinflammatory effect of Nrf2 by mediating inflammasome activation

Monocyte / macrophage inflammatory response pathways to combat Francisella infection: possible therapeutic targets?

Francisella tularensis can bypass and suppress host immune responses, even to the point of manipulating immune cell phenotypes and intercellular inflammatory networks. Strengthening these responses such that immune cells more readily identify and destroy the bacteria is likely to become a viable (and perhaps necessary) strategy for combating infections with Francisella, especially given the likelihood of antibiotic resistance in the foreseeable future. Monocytes and macrophages offer a niche wherein Francisella can invade and replicate, resulting in substantially higher bacterial load that can overcome the host. As such, understanding their responses to Francisella may uncover potential avenues of therapy that could promote a lowering of bacterial burden and clearance of infection. These response pathways include Toll-like Receptor 2 (TLR2), the caspase-1 inflammasome, Interferons, NADPH oxidase, Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and the Ras pathway. In this review we summarize the literature pertaining to the roles of these pathways during Francisella infection, with an emphasis on monocyte / macrophage responses. The therapeutic targeting of one or more such pathways may ultimately become a valuable tool for the treatment of tularemia, and several possibilities are discussed

Small molecule, nanoparticle and liposomal strategies for LAT1-mediated chemotherapy delivery

LAT1 has become a popular target for anti-cancer therapeutics due to its role as a nutrient transporter and abundant expression in cancer cells. Although small molecule inhibition has been the major focus of LAT1-based chemotherapies, using LAT1-substrates as a carrier will allow delivery of known drugs to cells, improving their intracellular uptake and thus decreasing concentrations required to give the desired biological effect. This review highlights the current efforts in using LAT1-amino acid substrates as carriers for chemotherapeutic delivery