Delta-Notch Signaling: Functional and Mechanistic Studies of Receptor and Ligand Proteolysis and Endocytosis

Delta-Notch signaling is crucial for development of nearly every tissue in metazoans. Signals received by the Notch receptor influence transcription of select target genes that ultimately restrict the developmental fate of the signal receiving cell with respect to its neighbors. The Notch pathway also functions in contexts of abnormal proliferation and differentiation, e.g. cancer and inflammation. Therefore, understanding the regulation of signaling through the Notch receptor protein at the cellular and molecular level is of great significance. In this dissertation, I investigated three ways in which Notch signaling is regulated, namely (1) proteolysis of the Delta ligand; (2) endocytosis of the Delta ligand; and (3) proteolysis of the Notch receptor.. The Delta protein has three functions. First, Delta is a ligand for Notch when bound to it from an adjacent cell. Second, Delta is an inhibitor of Notch when coexpressed with it in the same cell. Third, Delta is hypothesized to be a receptor and, upon binding to Notch, signals to nucleus. Delta undergoes proteolysis by ADAM proteases and there are two contradictory models for the role of Delta cleavage: (1) cleavage disables Delta function; and (2) cleavage activates Delta function. Overall, the results presented in this dissertation strengthen the first model and weaken the second one. Consistent with the first model, we showed that preventing Delta cleavage strengthens its ligand function. As well, when co-expressed in the same with Notch, Delta cleavage is upregulated therefore disabling Delta function as inhibitor of Notch. In contrast to the second model, we showed that Delta proteolysis does not follow a previously established pattern of cleavages typical of cell surface proteins that are activated by proteolysis. Delta also undergoes endocytosis. Two general models have emerged that are again contradictory: (1) endocytosis downregulates cell surface expression of Delta and therefore diminishes its ability to bind Notch; (2) endocytosis of Delta invokes activation of Notch signaling. Overall, our results strengthen the first model and weaken the second one. In support of the first model, we first demonstrated that Notch activation shows a linear relationship to the amount of Delta ligand present on the cell surface and that subsequent inhibition of cell surface expression of Delta leads to its loss of function. In contrast to the second model, we showed that endocytosis of Delta is not required to activate Notch. We also resolved that earlier evidence in support for this model stemmed from misinterpretations of the properties of a Delta mutant protein. Proteolysis of Notch activates the signaling cascade. Binding of Delta to Notch was previously regarded as a requisite regulatory step to invoke receptor proteolysis. We identified the ability of Kuzbanian and TACE, ADAM proteases that cleave Notch in response to Delta stimulation, to activate Notch in a ligand-independent manner. Altogether, our results demonstrate that proteolysis and endocytosis of Delta are independent mechanisms that act to downregulate Delta function and are therefore an important means of attenuating the Notch signal. Alternatively, we find a novel means of enhancing Notch signals in specific contexts, namely through ligand-independent Notch activation by the ADAMs Kuzbanian and TACE. With respect to the latter observation, Kuzbanian and TACE expression is known to be elevated in several human diseases, and thus predicts that engagement of Notch signaling is a contributing factor in these pathologies

Light Evokes Melanopsin-Dependent Vocalization and Neural Activation Associated with Aversive Experience in Neonatal Mice

<div><p>Melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) are the only functional photoreceptive cells in the eye of newborn mice. Through postnatal day 9, in the absence of functional rods and cones, these ipRGCs mediate a robust avoidance behavior to a light source, termed negative phototaxis. To determine whether this behavior is associated with an aversive experience in neonatal mice, we characterized light-induced vocalizations and patterns of neuronal activation in regions of the brain involved in the processing of aversive and painful stimuli. Light evoked distinct melanopsin-dependent ultrasonic vocalizations identical to those emitted under stressful conditions, such as isolation from the litter. In contrast, light did not evoke the broad-spectrum calls elicited by acute mechanical pain. Using markers of neuronal activation, we found that light induced the immediate-early gene product Fos in the posterior thalamus, a brain region associated with the enhancement of responses to mechanical stimulation of the dura by light, and thought to be the basis for migrainous photophobia. Additionally, light induced the phosphorylation of extracellular-related kinase (pERK) in neurons of the central amygdala, an intracellular signal associated with the processing of the aversive aspects of pain. However, light did not activate Fos expression in the spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis, the primary receptive field for painful stimulation to the head. We conclude that these light-evoked vocalizations and the distinct pattern of brain activation in neonatal mice are consistent with a melanopsin-dependent neural pathway involved in processing light as an aversive but not acutely painful stimulus.</p> </div

Glutamatergic neurotransmission from melanopsin retinal ganglion cells is required for neonatal photoaversion but not adult pupillary light reflex.

Melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs) in the eye play an important role in many light-activated non-image-forming functions including neonatal photoaversion and the adult pupillary light reflex (PLR). MRGCs rely on glutamate and possibly PACAP (pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide) to relay visual signals to the brain. However, the role of these neurotransmitters for individual non-image-forming responses remains poorly understood. To clarify the role of glutamatergic signaling from mRGCs in neonatal aversion to light and in adult PLR, we conditionally deleted vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT2) selectively from mRGCs in mice. We found that deletion of VGLUT2 in mRGCs abolished negative phototaxis and light-induced distress vocalizations in neonatal mice, underscoring a necessary role for glutamatergic signaling. In adult mice, loss of VGLUT2 in mRGCs resulted in a slow and an incomplete PLR. We conclude that glutamatergic neurotransmission from mRGCs is required for neonatal photoaversion but is complemented by another non-glutamatergic signaling mechanism for the pupillary light reflex in adult mice. We speculate that this complementary signaling might be due to PACAP neurotransmission from mRGCs

Light activates neurons in the posterior thalamic group.

<p>(A) Line drawing indicating the region of interest within the adult thalamus, which encompasses a group of nuclei that we refer to here as the posterior thalamic group (Po – see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0043787#s2" target="_blank">Methods</a>). The boxed outline indicates the region of the thalamus shown in the micrographs to the right. (B) An example of Fos expression in a sham-treated P8 mouse pup that remained in the dark (WT Dark). (C) An example of Fos expression in a P8 mouse pup exposed to light for 30 min (WT Light). (D) Quantification of the number of Fos expressing neurons in Po. In WT pups, light increased the density of Fos cells 3 fold (Dark n = 8 and Light n = 9). Formalin injection increased the density of Fos stained cells by 1.9-fold compared to saline injections (n = 4 both saline and formalin groups). In KO pups, light increased Fos staining (KO Dark n = 5, KO Light n = 9). Data are presented as means of the average number of Fos staining neurons per section in each animal ± SEM. Asterisks indicate (*) p<0.05 and (**) p<0.001, respectively.</p

Retinofugal Projections from Melanopsin-Expressing Retinal Ganglion Cells Revealed by Intraocular Injections of Cre-Dependent Virus.

To understand visual functions mediated by intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs), it is important to elucidate axonal projections from these cells into the brain. Initial studies reported that melanopsin is expressed only in retinal ganglion cells within the eye. However, recent studies in Opn4-Cre mice revealed Cre-mediated marker expression in multiple brain areas. These discoveries complicate the use of melanopsin-driven genetic labeling techniques to identify retinofugal projections specifically from mRGCs. To restrict labeling to mRGCs, we developed a recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying a Cre-dependent reporter (human placental alkaline phosphatase) that was injected into the vitreous of Opn4-Cre mouse eyes. The labeling observed in the brain of these mice was necessarily restricted specifically to retinofugal projections from mRGCs in the injected eye. We found that mRGCs innervate multiple nuclei in the basal forebrain, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus and midbrain. Midline structures tended to be bilaterally innervated, whereas the lateral structures received mostly contralateral innervation. As validation of our approach, we found projection patterns largely corresponded with previously published results; however, we have also identified a few novel targets. Our discovery of projections to the central amygdala suggests a possible direct neural pathway for aversive responses to light in neonates. In addition, projections to the accessory optic system suggest that mRGCs play a direct role in visual tracking, responses that were previously attributed to other classes of retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, projections to the zona incerta raise the possibility that mRGCs could regulate visceral and sensory functions. However, additional studies are needed to investigate the actual photosensitivity of mRGCs that project to the different brain areas. Also, there is a concern of "overlabeling" with very sensitive reporters that uncover low levels of expression. Light-evoked signaling from these cells must be shown to be of sufficient sensitivity to elicit physiologically relevant responses

Retinofugal Projections from Melanopsin-Expressing Retinal Ganglion Cells Revealed by Intraocular Injections of Cre-Dependent Virus

<div><p>To understand visual functions mediated by intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs), it is important to elucidate axonal projections from these cells into the brain. Initial studies reported that melanopsin is expressed only in retinal ganglion cells within the eye. However, recent studies in <i>Opn4</i>-Cre mice revealed Cre-mediated marker expression in multiple brain areas. These discoveries complicate the use of melanopsin-driven genetic labeling techniques to identify retinofugal projections specifically from mRGCs. To restrict labeling to mRGCs, we developed a recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying a Cre-dependent reporter (human placental alkaline phosphatase) that was injected into the vitreous of <i>Opn4</i>-Cre mouse eyes. The labeling observed in the brain of these mice was necessarily restricted specifically to retinofugal projections from mRGCs in the injected eye. We found that mRGCs innervate multiple nuclei in the basal forebrain, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus and midbrain. Midline structures tended to be bilaterally innervated, whereas the lateral structures received mostly contralateral innervation. As validation of our approach, we found projection patterns largely corresponded with previously published results; however, we have also identified a few novel targets. Our discovery of projections to the central amygdala suggests a possible direct neural pathway for aversive responses to light in neonates. In addition, projections to the accessory optic system suggest that mRGCs play a direct role in visual tracking, responses that were previously attributed to other classes of retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, projections to the zona incerta raise the possibility that mRGCs could regulate visceral and sensory functions. However, additional studies are needed to investigate the actual photosensitivity of mRGCs that project to the different brain areas. Also, there is a concern of "overlabeling" with very sensitive reporters that uncover low levels of expression. Light-evoked signaling from these cells must be shown to be of sufficient sensitivity to elicit physiologically relevant responses.</p></div

Glutamatergic Neurotransmission from Melanopsin Retinal Ganglion Cells Is Required for Neonatal Photoaversion but Not Adult Pupillary Light Reflex

<div><p>Melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs) in the eye play an important role in many light-activated non-image-forming functions including neonatal photoaversion and the adult pupillary light reflex (PLR). MRGCs rely on glutamate and possibly PACAP (pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide) to relay visual signals to the brain. However, the role of these neurotransmitters for individual non-image-forming responses remains poorly understood. To clarify the role of glutamatergic signaling from mRGCs in neonatal aversion to light and in adult PLR, we conditionally deleted vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT2) selectively from mRGCs in mice. We found that deletion of VGLUT2 in mRGCs abolished negative phototaxis and light-induced distress vocalizations in neonatal mice, underscoring a necessary role for glutamatergic signaling. In adult mice, loss of VGLUT2 in mRGCs resulted in a slow and an incomplete PLR. We conclude that glutamatergic neurotransmission from mRGCs is required for neonatal photoaversion but is complemented by another non-glutamatergic signaling mechanism for the pupillary light reflex in adult mice. We speculate that this complementary signaling might be due to PACAP neurotransmission from mRGCs.</p></div