Assessment of band recoveries for three Australian eagle species

Band recoveries to 2012 were analysed for the White-bellied Sea-Eagle 'Haliaeetus leucogaster' (n = 11, recovery rate = 6%), Wedge-tailed Eagle 'Aquila audax' (n = 55, recovery rate = 7%) and Little Eagle 'Hieraaetus morphnoides' (n = 30, recovery rate = 9%) in Australia (for Wedge-tailed Eagle eastern Australia only). Juvenile/immature Sea-Eagles (n = 8) were recovered within 3.5 years (0-41 months, mean 13 months), 0-1824 kilometres (mean 268 km) from the banding site. Adults (n = 3) were recovered at the banding site; one notable lifespan was 19+ years. Of 60 Sea-Eagles wing-tagged in the coastal Northern Territory, 1978-1994, four (recovery rate = 7%) were juveniles recovered/resighted within 1-4 years, 30-90 kilometres from the banding site, whereas territorial adults were resighted on their territories over the ensuing year. Juvenile/immature Wedge-tailed Eagles (n = 55) were recovered 0-821 kilometres from the banding site (mean 130 km, 95% within 300 km), 1-72 months later (mean 11 months); one banded on Kangaroo Island was recovered on the adjacent mainland (13+ km across sea). Little Eagles (mostly aged as 'first year or older' and unsexed) were recovered 0-2884 kilometres from the banding site (mean 219 km, 80% within 200 km), 1-311 months later (mean 60 months); notable lifespans were of 19-26 years, but average lifespan may be approximately five years in the sheep-wheat belt. Human-related mortalities, either deliberate (persecution) or accidental (e.g. collisions, interactions with infrastructure), formed a large proportion of the reported public recoveries of each species

Breeding biology, behaviour and foraging ecology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger near Tamworth, New South Wales

The breeding biology and behaviour of the Black Falcon Falco subniger were studied in the Tamworth district (northern inland New South Wales) through 146 hours of observation over 47 days in 2015 (one pair, pre-laying to early incubation) and 261 hours of observation over 69 days in 2016 (four pairs, pre-laying to fledging, with checks through the post-fledging period). Pellets were collected from under vacated nests. Aerial displays (e.g. agility, V-dives, 'undulatory roll,' 'high winnowing'), nest-site selection and occupation, courtship and mating are described. Adopted stick nests were high in tall or emergent riparian or paddock eucalypts; nearest-neighbour distances averaged 10.25 km (range 9-12 km). Eggs were laid in July, and the incubation period appeared to be 34 ± 1 days at one nest. Males took a minor share of incubation (1-3% of daylight) and brooding of hatchlings (1%). Interspecific conflict or nest-site defence was strongest against corvids in the pre-laying phase, and against Wedge-tailed Eagles Aquila audax during the nestling phase. Feeding rates and estimated biomass provision were 0.09-0.26 item/h and ~4–28 g/h at nests that failed during the incubation or hatchling phase, and 0.19 item/h and ~23 g/h to a single nestling that fledged, albeit underweight. Nest failure appeared to be related to cold, wet weather and poor hunting success around hatching time. Breeding productivity was 0.25 young per attempt in 2015-16, and 0.5-0.6 young per attempt for 10 nests since 2004, with up to half of fledglings failing to reach independence. The observed breeding diet was 98% birds and 2% rodents, although insects appeared in pellets. Hunting success on birds was 36% of observed attacks. Demographic and ecological research on this species is required. As the threatened and declining Black Falcon faces human-related impacts in the sheep-wheat belt, some possible management strategies are suggested (e.g. artificial nests)

Some vocalisations of the Grey Falcon 'Falco hypoleucos'

Sound-recordings of some calls of the Grey Falcon 'Falco hypoleucos' (adult cackle calls, juvenile begging whines) are described and presented as sound spectrograms, and compared with some equivalent calls of the Peregrine Falcon 'F. peregrinus' (adult female cackle, juvenile begging whine, probable juvenile cackle). The Grey Falcon cackle calls are similar to those of the Peregrine, though variously softer and clearer, more 'squeaky' and/or more guttural (the Peregrine cackles being more strident and whining). Grey Falcon juvenile begging calls are more falsetto than those of the Peregrine. Fundamental frequencies differ slightly (Grey Falcon adult female cackle calls at ~700 Hz, Peregrine at ~1 kHz for juvenile begging calls, ~2 kHz for adult female cackle calls). The vocal data are consistent with the phylogenetic position of the Grey Falcon as basal to the Peregrine and 'great falcon' groups

Calls and vocal behaviour of the Black Falcon Falco subniger

Some calls of the Black Falcon Falco subniger (adult female cackle calls and begging whines, adult male creaking call) are described and illustrated, together with quantification of calling rates of both sexes at four active nests near Tamworth, NSW. Females were more vocal than males at all stages of the breeding cycle. Black Falcon cackle calls are similar to those of the Peregrine Falcon F. peregrinus, although more guttural owing to a lower fundamental frequency of ~1 kHz in females, compared with ~2 kHz in female Peregrine Falcons. The Black Falcon is less vocal than the Peregrine, and breeding males use the whining call much less frequently than do Peregrine males

Hunting behaviour of Black Falcons

This note describes six foraging episodes by solitary Black Falcons 'Falco subniger' near Tamworth in northern inland New South Wales. All involved high aerial searching (soaring, quartering or transect-flying) before, in some cases, launching a stoop that became a low-level attack on flocking, ground-feeding birds in the open

Birds of Prey of Australia: A Field Guide

This book offers only a brief overview of the Australian raptors. Other books that provide more detail are listed in the bibliography, along with major references and papers published since the first edition of this guide. This introduction makes a few generalisations about raptors; a little more detail is offered in the species accounts. The book is organised in two parts: a concise field guide, intended to enable rapid visual identification of raptors, with separate sections on difficult species-pairs and vagrants or doubtful species; and a handbook that provides further detail on the biology of individual species. In the handbook, each genus or group of related genera is dealt with in a separate section, with a general introduction to each genus or group. An account of each species in that genus or group then follows, with sections on Characteristics (supplementing the field guide where necessary), Distribution, Food and Hunting, Behaviour, Breeding, and Threats and Conservation. Movements are mentioned briefly, for some species, where appropriate. The common names used here are those recommended by Bird Life Australia; only the most commonly used alternatives are given. I have refrained from listing 'folk' names, in the belief that the official names should become standard

Breeding of the Hooded Robin 'Melanodryas cucullata' in native and exotic woodlands near Armidale, New South Wales

The breeding behaviour and habitat of three groups of Hooded Robins 'Melanodryas cucullata' were studied near Armidale, on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales, from winter 2006 to winter 2007, by quantifying nest sites, colour-banding nestlings, and observing Robin families until beyond independence of the banded juveniles. Egg-laying commenced in September, and continued until December for the last of five consecutive unsuccessful clutches (all C/2). Two broods (each B/2) fledged, after an incubation to fledging period of 27 days, including a nestling period of more than 11 days. Breeding productivity was 1.3 fledglings/group and 0.57 fledglings/attempt (nest success and fledging success were both 29%; 'n' = 3 pairs or groups, 7 nests). Fledglings were dependent on their parents for eight weeks, with post-juvenile moult starting at 6-8 weeks and completed by 6-7 months post-fledging (in autumn); one offspring acquired adult-like male plumage by this time. Breeding groups consisted of 2-5 adults, in home ranges of 30+ hectares; nest sites were in eucalypt saplings and in an exotic pine plantation. Nest-building, breeding behaviour, and food and foraging are described

Parental time-budgets and breeding behaviour of the Little Eagle 'Hieraaetus morphnoides' in northern New South Wales

The breeding behaviour and parental time-budgets of a pair of Little Eagles 'Hieraaetus morphnoides' were studied throughout 115 hours of observation from nest-building to fledging at Armidale, on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales, in spring–summer 2009. Supplementary observations were conducted on three other nearby pairs, and the breeding productivity of nine local pairs was monitored. Incubation lasted approximately 38 days (one nest), and one male eaglet fledged at 54 days. Fledgling productivity was 0.56 young per occupied territory in 2009, and 0.63 young per pair per year for 24 pair-years during 2006–2009. Sex-roles, parental time-budgets and nestling growth are described and quantified. Males contributed substantially to nest-building, but little to incubation. In the nestling period for one pair there was a sharp division of labour, with the male supplying all food to the female and young, and the female performing all nest-based parental care. Prey items at the nest (n = 24) consisted of immature Rabbit 'Orcytolagus cuniculus' (79% by number, ~95% biomass), parrots (13%, ~4%) and ?lizard (4%, ~1%). Adult eagle turnover and mortality appear to have increased, and estimated life expectancy to have decreased, in New England since the 1980s

Notes on Black Falcons 'Falco subniger' Breeding near Tamworth, New South Wales

Nest-site selection, diet, prelaying and foraging behaviour of a pair of Black Falcons 'Falco subniger' were studied near Tamworth, on the North-west Slopes of New South Wales, during 81 hours' observation in the prelaying period (late June-early September 2010), until the breeding attempt was abandoned (apparently owing mainly to prolonged bad weather, and possibly predation of eggs by corvids). The Falcons' nest-sites, nest-based behaviours (copulation, nest-preparation, defence), vocalisations, and interactions with competing and harassing birds are described. Their vocalisations were most like those of other 'great' or 'desert' falcons (subgenus 'Hierofalco'). Prey remains (n = 3) and pellets (n = 18 + fragments) consisted entirely of the remains of common farmland birds. Foraging methods included fast contour hunting over woodland treetops, sometimes in pairs, apparently with sharing of resulting kills. The findings reinforce the importance of riparian and other remnant woodland, with emergent trees, for the Falcon's nest-sites and foraging strategies in farmland

The breeding cycle of a pair of Brahminy Kites 'Haliastur indus' in New South Wales

The breeding cycle of a pair of Brahminy Kites 'Haliastur indus' was observed at Port Macquarie, northern coastal New South Wales, by keeping a diary of events from nest-building to independence of the juvenile, from late winter to summer 2012. Nest-building lasted a month, the incubation period ~35 days, the nestling period 52 days, and the post-fledging dependence period ~7 weeks. Adult behaviour, sex-roles, and growth and development of the juvenile are described. The observed breeding diet consisted mostly of fish, although freshwater turtle and crab remains were observed accumulated under the pair's feeding tree. Further breeding attempts by the pair in 2013 (one fledgling) and 2014 (two failures) resulted in 0.67 young per year and 0.5 young per attempt over 3 years