Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (4th edition)1.

In 2008, we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, this topic has received increasing attention, and many scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Thus, it is important to formulate on a regular basis updated guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Despite numerous reviews, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to evaluate autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we present a set of guidelines for investigators to select and interpret methods to examine autophagy and related processes, and for reviewers to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of reports that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a dogmatic set of rules, because the appropriateness of any assay largely depends on the question being asked and the system being used. Moreover, no individual assay is perfect for every situation, calling for the use of multiple techniques to properly monitor autophagy in each experimental setting. Finally, several core components of the autophagy machinery have been implicated in distinct autophagic processes (canonical and noncanonical autophagy), implying that genetic approaches to block autophagy should rely on targeting two or more autophagy-related genes that ideally participate in distinct steps of the pathway. Along similar lines, because multiple proteins involved in autophagy also regulate other cellular pathways including apoptosis, not all of them can be used as a specific marker for bona fide autophagic responses. Here, we critically discuss current methods of assessing autophagy and the information they can, or cannot, provide. Our ultimate goal is to encourage intellectual and technical innovation in the field

HIV/AIDS Among Children and Adolescents: Implications for the Changing Role of School Psychologists

Because epidemiological estimates indicate that young adult females experience the greatest annual increase in HIV infection rates, public schools must prepare for a corresponding increment in pediatric HIV resulting from transmission during pregnancy, birth, or the neonatal period. In addition, data reveal that adolescents continue to engage in alarmingly high rates of risk taking in the context of sexual activity and drug use. These findings have important implications for the changing role of school psychologists. A three-tiered consultation model, first proposed by Meyers (1975), is described in which school psychologists can engage in child-centered, teacher-centered, and system-centered consultation practice in response to the HIV/AIDS crisis in school

Helping students with chronic illness: The importance of school-based data.

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