Immunopathogenesis of Salmonellosis

Salmonella is an intracellular pathogenic, gram-negative, facultative anaerobe and non-spore-forming and usually a motile bacillus that leads to salmonellosis in the host. It is a common food-borne disease that ranges from local gastrointestinal inflammation and diarrhoea to life-threatening typhoid fever and presents usually a serious threat to public health due to its socio-economic value. Inadequate sanitation and impure water help in the propagation of this disease. Despite advancement in the sanitation standards, Salmonella enters the food chain and affects communities globally. There is an immediate need to develop improved vaccines to minimise Salmonella-related illnesses. Some Salmonella serovars infect a wide range of hosts, while others are known to be host restricted. Many different factors determine the adaptability and host specificity of Salmonella. The host-pathogen interactions play a unique role in Salmonella invasion and progression which needs to be studied in detail. This chapter shall focus on our current understanding of Salmonella invasion, pathogenesis and interactions with the host, host specificity and adaptability

Genetics of Disease Resistance in Chicken

Although poultry industry has gained momentum during the last few decades, there are still various impediments like improper infrastructure, unscientific management and above all various deadly infectious diseases which incur huge economic losses on poultry industry. These diseases include viral diseases like Avian Influenza, Marek’s Disease, New Castle disease and bacterial diseases like Colibacillosis, Pasteurellosis and Salmonellosis, etc. Development of disease resistant poultry has been found successful practice over the use of drugs or vaccines for disease control. Studies involving genome wide associations to figure out certain candidate genes that are involved in disease resistance have also been carried out. Single nucleotide polymorphism studies to unveil the mechanisms underlying disease resistance in chicken show that SNPs and other candidate gene approaches play a vital role in providing disease resistance. Also, understanding the genes and biological pathways that confer genetic resistance to various infections will lead towards the development of more resistant commercial poultry flocks or improved vaccines against various diseases. This chapter shall focus on various factors involved in disease resistance in chicken that interact with the pathogen and provide resistance against the pathogen

Long Non-Coding RNAs: Biogenesis, Mechanism of Action and Role in Different Biological and Pathological Processes

RNA or ribonucleic acid constitutes of nucleotides, which are ribose sugars coupled to nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups. Nitrogenous bases include adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil. Messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA and Transfer RNA are three main types of RNA that are involved in protein synthesis. Apart from its primary role in synthesis of protein, RNA comes in variety of forms like snRNA, miRNA, siRNA, antisense RNA, LncRNA etc., that are involved in DNA replication, post-transcriptional modification, and gene regulation etc. LncRNAs regulate gene expression by various ways including at, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, post-translational and epigenetic levels by interacting principally with mRNA, DNA, protein, and miRNA. Among other biological functions, they are involved in chromatin remodelling, transcriptional interference, transcriptional activation, mRNA translation and RNA processing. In this chapter we shall be discussing the origin of lncRNAs, their biogenesis, their mechanism of action and their role in many biological and pathological processes like epigenetics, genome imprinting, several cancers and autoimmune diseases

Unchain Your Heart: Battling Coronary Artery Disease

ABSTRACT Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) remains a significant contributor to illness and mortality on a global scale. It is characterized by the gradual narrowing of coronary arteries due to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques, leading to a disruption in the blood supply to the heart muscle. This often results in ischemic events such as angina and heart attacks. This summary offers a concise overview of CAD, concentrating on its causes, risk factors, clinical presentation, and contemporary methods of treatment. The development of CAD involves a complex interaction of genetic predisposition, traditional risk factors (such as hypertension and abnormal lipid levels), and lifestyle factors. Despite its subtle beginnings, CAD can show itself through symptoms like angina, breathlessness, or silent ischemia. Early detection is crucial and can be aided by stress tests, coronary angiography, and non-invasive imaging techniques. Approaches to managing CAD encompass adjustments to one's lifestyle, pharmacological interventions, and invasive procedures. Lifestyle changes involve dietary improvements, physical activity, and smoking cessation, all of which have been proven to slow down the progression of CAD. Medications like antiplatelets, statins, and beta-blockers target risk factors and alleviate symptoms. Invasive treatments such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) restore blood flow, leading to better quality of life and increased survival rates. In conclusion, the widespread occurrence of CAD and its clinical implications highlight the importance of proactive prevention and evidence-based treatment. Advances in diagnostic methods and therapeutic approaches continue to shape the management of CAD, leading to improved outcomes and instilling optimism in the fight against this challenging cardiovascular condition. Keywords: Heart, Coronary artery, Lifestyle, medications

Gastric Ulcer: An overview

Gastric ulcers are breaks in the mucosa of the stomach lining that penetrate through the muscularis mucosa and extend more than 5 mm in diameter. When alterations occur to the defense mechanisms of the stomach, it can cause changes in the gastric mucosa, eventually resulting in erosion and then ulceration. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection are the two major factors disrupting mucosal resistance to injury. Gastric ulcers are characterized by discontinuation in the inner lining of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract because of gastric acid secretion or pepsin. It extends into the muscularis propria layer of the gastric epithelium. It usually occurs in the stomach and proximal duodenum. It may involve the lower esophagus, distal duodenum, or jejunum. Epigastric pain usually occurs within 15–30 minutes following a meal in patients with a gastric ulcer. Conversely, the pain with a duodenal ulcer tends to occur 2–3 hours after a meal. The treatments for gastric ulcers, such as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and histamine-2 (H2) receptor antagonists, have demonstrated adverse effects, relapses, and various drug interactions. On the other hand, medicinal plants and their chemical compounds are useful in preventing and treating numerous diseases. Keywords: gastric ulcer, NSAIDs, epigastric pain, pathophysiolog

PM_2.5 Exposure-Linked Mitochondrial Dysfunction Negates SB216763-Mediated Cardio-Protection against Myocardial Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury

GSK3β is a promising target for treating various disease conditions, including myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury (IR). This study investigated the potential of GSK3β as a novel drug for managing IR in rats exposed to PM2.5 for 1 day and up to 21 days. Female Wistar rats were exposed to PM2.5 at a concentration of 250 µg/m3 for 3 h daily for either a single day or 21 days. After exposure, the isolated rat hearts underwent 30 min of ischemia followed by 60 min of reperfusion. GSK3β inhibition effectively reduced IR injury in rat hearts from animals exposed to PM2.5 for 1 day but not in those exposed for 21 days. PM2.5 exposure disrupted the redox balance in mitochondria and reduced the gene expression of antioxidants (glutaredoxin and peroxiredoxin) and NRF2, which protects against oxidative stress. PM2.5 also impaired mitochondrial bioenergetics, membrane potential, and quality control, leading to mitochondrial stress. Importantly, PM2.5 increased the translocation of GSK3β into mitochondria and compromised the overall mitochondrial function, particularly in the 21-day-exposed rat myocardium. The results indicate that extended exposure to PM2.5 leads to oxidative stress that disrupts mitochondrial function and diminishes the effectiveness of GSK3β inhibitors in offering cardio-protection through mitochondria

Epilepsy and Neuroinflammation: Unraveling the Complex Connection

ABSTRACT Epilepsy, a neurological disorder characterized by recurring seizures, has long been a subject of scientific exploration. Recent research has unveiled an intriguing link between epilepsy and neuroinflammation, the brain's immune response to injury or infection. This connection has shed light on how inflammation contributes to the development and progression of epilepsy. Neuroinflammation appears to play a pivotal role in epileptogenesis—the process of normal brain tissue becoming hyperexcitable and prone to seizures. Immune cells like microglia and astrocytes release inflammatory molecules that disrupt neurotransmitter balance, promoting neuronal hyperexcitability. This heightened excitability sets the stage for seizure generation. The interaction between neuroinflammation and seizures is bidirectional. Seizures can trigger immune responses, releasing pro-inflammatory molecules. Conversely, inflammation lowers the seizure threshold, making individuals more susceptible to seizures. Mechanisms underlying this relationship include blood-brain barrier dysfunction, altered synaptic plasticity, and an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signaling. Understanding these mechanisms has therapeutic implications. Targeting neuroinflammatory pathways could suppress inflammation and reduce seizure frequency. Neuroprotective agents may prevent inflammation-induced damage and halt epileptogenesis. Immunomodulatory treatments might restore the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory responses, regulating neuroinflammation and reducing seizure susceptibility. The intricate interplay between epilepsy and neuroinflammation is a captivating field of study. Unraveling this complex connection offers insights into the underlying mechanisms of epilepsy, potentially leading to novel therapeutic approaches. By addressing both neurological and inflammatory aspects, researchers aim to improve epilepsy management and enhance the lives of those affected by this condition. Keywords: Epilepsy, neuroinflammation, seizures, inflammation

Adverse Reactions Caused by Antiepileptic Medications in Real-World Medical Settings

Epilepsy is a relatively common condition characterized by a tendency for recurrent seizures, which is due to the disturbance of spread of electrical discharge of the cortical neurons. Up to 80% of people with epilepsy are able to control their condition with anti epileptic drugs (AEDs). The growing number of newly approved drugs for various illnesses coupled with the complex treatment options have contributed to the increased risk of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). AEDs have a narrow therapeutic index with wide spectrum of ADRs. 10-30% of epileptic patients discontinue their initially prescribed AEDs due to ADRs. These ADRs can be the cause of non-adherence and subjective distress. The newer generation AEDs have reduced adverse events, fewer drug interactions if any and thus improved safety. Comparison of adverse effects in patients taking AEDs with adverse events in control groups is helpful; however, data from controlled studies are often lacking for most AEDs. Because of these limitations, the clinician must adopt a preventative and early detection approach based on some general principles. This review outlines   various adverse reactions related to the use of Anti-epileptic drugs. Keywords: adverse reactions, antiepileptic drugs, carbamazepine, phenytoi

To study different types of epileptic seizures and their treatment in a Superspeciality Hospital Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Introduction: Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent and unpredictable seizures, which are abnormal bursts of electrical activity in the brain. These seizures can vary in intensity and manifestation, causing a range of physical and cognitive effects. Epilepsy affects people of all ages and backgrounds, with over 65 million individuals’ worldwide living with the condition. Seizures in epilepsy can manifest in different ways, from convulsive jerking motions to momentary lapses in awareness. They can be triggered by various factors, including sleep deprivation, stress, flashing lights, or underlying brain conditions. Diagnosing epilepsy involves a comprehensive evaluation of a person's medical history, symptoms, and often electroencephalogram (EEG) tests to monitor brain activity. Treatment options for epilepsy aim to reduce the frequency and severity of seizures. This can include medication, which helps stabilize brain activity and prevent excessive electrical discharges. Objective: The objective of this study was to study different types of epileptic seizures and their treatment in a Superspeciality Hospital Jalandhar, Punjab, India. Methodology: This was a prospective, observational study investigating 90 patients with epileptic seizure in NASA AND HUB SUPERSPECIALITY HOSPITAL (NHS) located in Jalandhar Punjab for over a period of 4 months. This study revealed the treatment strategies used by physicians and correlation among treatment, control and complications of Epilepsy within the Indian context. This study eventually helped to develop person-centered care and facilitate public health agencies to invest appropriate resources in the management of Epilepsy in the health care system. Results: While studying about the gender wise distribution of patients, It was found that total number of patients at Nasa And Hub Superspeciality Hospital were 90, in which male patients were 60 accounting for 66.7% of study population, whereas the female patients were 30 accounting for 33.3% of total study population. Conclusion: The aim of the study was carried out to get the better awareness regarding epileptic seizures and to focus on the correct diagnosis for better treatment. The study focus on the most number of patients admitted at hospital with different types of seizures and the antiepileptic drugs to treat seizures. The study was done to differentiate between various groups of patients with epilepsy, of either sex or age. Keywords: Epilepsy, Phenytoin, valproate

<em>Salmonella</em> Infection and Pathogenesis

Salmonella genus represents most common food borne pathogens isolated from food producing animals and is responsible for causing zoonotic infections in humans and other animal species, including birds. As a result, Salmonella diseases are among the most common problems for the humans, animals, and food industry around the world. Despite rising attention about other pathogens, Salmonella continues to be the most prominent cause of food borne disease worldwide. Salmonella can be transferred to humans at any point along the farm-to-fork chain, most commonly through infected animal-derived foods such as poultry and poultry related products (eggs), pork, fish, and so on. Some Salmonella serotypes have been confined to a single serovar and are known as “host-restricted” while the others have a wide host spectral range and are known as “host-adapted” serotypes. Globally Salmonella infection causes huge mortality and the infection plays a huge role in immune response by evolving multiple mechanism to subvert immunity to its own benefit. Numerous infectivity markers and determinants have indeed been reported to play essential role in Salmonella pathogenesis to colonize its host by invading and avoiding the host’s intestinal shielding system