Combined current and temperature mapping in an air-cooled, open-cathode polymer electrolyte fuel cell under steady-state and dynamic conditions

In situ diagnostic techniques provide a means of understanding the internal workings of fuel cells so that improved designs and operating regimes can be identified. Here, for the first time, a combined current density and temperature distributed measurement system is used to generate an electro-thermal performance map of an air-cooled, air-breathing polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack operating in an air/hydrogen cross-flow configuration. Analysis is performed in low- and high-current regimes and a complex relationship between localised current density, temperature and reactant supply is identified that describes the way in which the system enters limiting performance conditions. Spatiotemporal analysis was carried out to characterise transient operations in dead-ended anode/purge mode which revealed extensive current density and temperature gradients

Indirect Expropriation in Private International Law

In the modern theory and practice of international investment law on forced removal of foreign ownership, the issue of indirect expropriation remains topical. Despite the fact that the term “indirect (“creeping”) expropriation” is not legally secured, it is actively used both in the doctrine and arbitration practice. Analysis of judicial practice shows that the courts tend to develop and specify the signs indirect expropriation of foreign property so that eventually they could be fi xed in the international regulatory system. International arbitration courts are trying to establish a fair balance between the rights of investors and the rights of the state to regulate

INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF INVESTMENT MEASURES IN PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT ARBITRATION

INTRODUCTION. Developing States are interested in both the inflow of foreign investment and its efficient use in their national economies. In the furtherance of this objective, host States set in their national legislation trade-related investment measures, referred to as “performance requirements” (requirements to achieve certain national economically useful results). The interests of foreign investors and host States in the matter of measures falling within the concept of “performance requirements” mostly diverge, since these measures create for foreign investors competitive restrictions related to the use of their investments. In legal science and practice there are known trade-related investment measures, such as export requirements, foreign exchange restrictions, local content requirements and others. The possibility for foreign investors to invest without performing trade-related investment measures was one of the main problems of transnational investment. The TRIMs agreement and Art. 1106 of NAFTA are devoted to the sole subject of regulation – “performance requirements”. The idea of limiting these measures was simultaneously discussed in the NAFTA negotiations and within the Uruguay round: the elaborated provisions are similar in some aspects, but have their specific characteristics. The article deals with the rules of both agreements in light of dispute settlement practice. The conclusions of the arbitrators are analyzed in chronological order, which helps to trace the evolution of the single concept in two distinct systems of WTO and NAFTA rules. The article demonstrates the common points and differences in the interpretation of the concerned provisions norms, with consideration for the context and objectives of the agreements. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The materials used in the article include the works of Russian and foreign scholars in the field of international economic law and WTO law, international legal documents adopted within the WTO and NAFTA, as well as materials of judicial and arbitration practice of investment disputes. The research was done on the basis of general and specific scientific methods of cognition (dialectical method, analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, comparative legal and historical-legal methods). RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis revealed that trade-related investment measures are part of the “performance requirements” listed in Art. 1106 of NAFTA, which developed countries managed to defend in negotiations with developing countries during the drafting of the TRIMs agreement. Despite the integrity of the concept of “investment requirements”, there is an evident difference in the scope of covered measures, as well as the conceptual difference between the notions of “trims” and “performance requirements”, due to the specifics of the WTO and NAFTA. Nevertheless, in both cases, common qualification criteria of prohibited measures have been developed independently from each other in the practice of investment disputes settlement in order to address similar issues of interpretation. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. On the ground of the analysis of arbitration practice in the TRIMs and Art. 1106 of NAFTA, the article gives reasons for the conclusion of the parallel development of the concepts of “trade-related investment measures” and “performance requirements”

International Legal Aspects of Cybersecurity

INTRODUCTION. In the modern world, the number of crimes committed in cyberspace has significantly increased. New types of malware used to achieve illegal goals appear regularly. According to experts, the material damage to the global economy from crimes committed with the help of information and communication technologies amounts to trillions of US dollars. Such a scale requires effective means of legal regulation of relations in cyberspace. Cybersecurity is considered one of the most relevant topics of current international law, which is extremely important for ensuring the national security of states. Information and communication technologies can be used to negatively affect economic, social, cultural and political relations, to damage the economic, military, and defense potential of the state and society. In this regard, the international community is deeply interested in developing a multilateral legal framework for cooperation in the field of cybersecurity. However, a unified approach to solving this problem in the international arena has not yet been developed. Legal regulation of cyberspace is very complex due to the virtual interface characteristics of this area.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The material for the study is the works of Russian and foreign researchers in the field of international law, international legalacts adopted in the framework of the UN and the European Union, draft UN conventions, national regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China and other states as well as judicial practice of international courts. Th research methodology is based on general and specific scientific methods of cognition (the dialectical method, methods of analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, comparative legal and historical legal methods).RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis showed that despite the applicability of the principles and rules of current international law to the information sphere, the universalization of the international legal regulation of cyberspace is required, taking into account its characteristics and in order to effectively combat the use of information and communication technologies for illegal purposes. The efforts of states to develop special rules of conduct in cyberspace are currently concentrated on a narrow sphere of issues related to human rights, data privacy, etc. Not all states are interested in creating a modern and effective mechanism for cooperation in cyberspace. Many states are openly opposing the development of new international legal instruments. For this reason, the Russian initiative to adopt the UN Convention on Cooperation in Combating Information Crimes has not been support-ed. This fact has entailed the absence of a full-fledged universal international legal framework for cooperation in the field of cyberspace.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Based on the analysis of doctrine and practice, the authors conclude that there is a need to create a universal international legal framework for cooperation in the fi ld of cyberspace. In modern international law, cybersecurity is one of the most pressing problems directly related to state security. The difference in the approaches of states to the problem of ensuring cybersecurity at the present stage entails the absence of an effective multilateral legal framework for cooperation in this area

Diseño del experimento de incremento artificial de la lluvia en áreas extensas de Camagüey por siembra de nubes aleatorizada (ESPAREX)

Se presenta el diseño científico del experimento de incremento artificial de la lluvia en áreas extensas que se viene ejecutando en la provincia de Camagüey y regiones vecinas desde agosto de 2005, como continuación de los experimentos realizados en esa región, en el período 1985 - 1990, que demostraron la posibilidad de obtener incrementos significativos de lluvia, a partir de la siembra con yoduro de plata de nubes individuales y agrupaciones nubosas con determinadas características. La metodología de siembra aplicada en EXPAREX consiste en la introducción de pirocartuchos de yoduro de plata en la parte superior de las nubes convectivas en desarrollo, cuyos topes alcanzan alturas entre 6 y 8 km, en el momento de la siembra, con ayuda de sistemas de lanzamiento instalados a bordo de un avión An-26. La altura de siembra es cercana a los 6 km, a una temperatura de casi -7 °C. Este avión porta, además, equipos de medición de parámetros básicos de la física de las nubes que permiten discernir en qué grado la nube experimental se corresponde con los criterios de siembra. En el diseño se expone y se fundamenta la hipótesis de siembra dinámica, en que se basa el experimento y se definen la unidad experimental, las metodologías de vuelo, la siembra y la evaluación del experimento, y los criterios de selección de días y de nubes experimentales. Se estima, también, la cantidad de unidades experimentales necesarias para lograr una demostración significativa del efecto de siembra sobre la base de los resultados de experimentos precedentes

ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION AND HEMOSTASIS SYSTEM IN PATIENTS AT RISK FOR OBSTETRIC PATHOLOGY. SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY

This article describes the features of the hemostatic system and endothelial function in pregnant patients who are at risk for obstetric complications: chronic hypertension, type 1 diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, a pathology of leg veins, miscarriage. Based on this study developed an algorithm for diagnosis of endothelial dysfunctionand pathology of the hemostatic system in these patients. Given the major pathogenetic aspects, provides detailed pharmacotherapy revealed pathology. Developed a scale of «the assessment of the thrombophilia and methods of its correction during pregnancy and on the background of extragenital pathology®», which allows you to identify and find adifferentiated pharmacotherapy with certain dosage, duration of the course in the dynamics and control, regardless of the methods and standards of determining the parameters of hemostasis