Bridging the digital divide: the role of community online access centres in Indigenous Communities

This paper presents data from the 2001 Census of Population and Housing to highlight the low levels of computer and internet usage by Indigenous Australians. This result is not surprising given the well documented connection between education, income, and use of these technologies. In addition to these demand-side factors, access will also be influenced by the availability of services and evidence shows that internet access is not as easy in remote areas as it is in urban centres. One possible way of addressing the digital divide between capital city dwellers and other Australians is through the development of community online access centres. Using evidence from the literature and from fieldwork in New South Wales, the paper considers some factors that are likely to make these centres more successful. These include a strong commitment by the community to the development of a centre and a close integration of the centre with community activities. It is also important that significant funds be budgeted to training for all involved including centre staff and community members

Implications of developments in telecommunications for Indigenous people in remote and rural Australia

This paper considers the implications of changes in the technological and regulatory environment in the telecommunications industry in Australia for Indigenous Australians living in remote and rural areas. This group is particularly vulnerable to falling on the wrong side of the 'digital divide' because of their geographical location and their low socioeconomic status. The paper surveys some of the important features of the industry that have implications for the provision of telecommunications services in rural and remote communities. These include economies of scale and scope, network externalities and the social and economic significance of the industry. The next section highlights some of the components of the regulatory environment that have particular implications for rural and remote Indigenous communities. These include price controls, the access regime, the Universal Service Obligation and the Customer Service Guarantee. Some of the government programs aimed at raising the quality of telecommunications services in rural and remote Australia are also discussed. The paper presents evidence on the current availability and quality of services and the demand for these services in rural and remote Australia. The evidence suggests that the telecommunications services available to these communities are inferior to those in urban Australia but given the nature of the industry, particularly the economies of scale and scope, the substantial government intervention has helped to reduce the gap. The available evidence also shows that Australians in remote and rural areas are less likely to utilise the new services such as mobile phones and the internet than Australians in urban centres. Technological developments offer the opportunity to reduce the disadvantages of location for rural and remote communities. For example, improved communications may be helpful in the provision of health and education services and for preserving Indigenous culture. There is also scope for expanding the export from these communities of arts and crafts and reducing the market power of suppliers of goods and services to these communities. However, it is important to recognise that technology alone will not solve all the problems facing rural and remote Indigenous communities in Australia. Recognition of the cultural and social environments of rural and remote Indigenous communities will be necessary to make these technological developments work for the people living there

The participation of Aboriginal people in the Australian labour market

This paper is the first of two that examine the participation and employment of Aborigines in the formal labour market using data from the 1986 Population Census. The labour force participation rate is a concept of interest because it is indicative of the degree of integration into the formal labour market. The paper begins by presenting the facts about the relationship between labour force participation and location of residence for both men and women. Aboriginal men and women had lower levels of participation in each of the three locations which we were able to distinguish; major urban, other urban and rural. They were particularly low in rural areas. The results of a formal analysis of the effects of Aboriginality on labour force participation are then presented using the unit record data available in the one per cent sample of the Census. They support the hypothesis that there is a statistically significant negative effect of Aboriginality on the participation probability once other factors such as age, education and marital status are taken into account. These preliminary results show that Aborigines living in rural locations had, other things equal, a particularly low probability of being included in the labour force. The lower participation rates of these people therefore do not just reflect their lower levels of human capital. The implications of these results for Aboriginal employment policy are considered in the conclusion

Self-employed Indigenous Australians in the labour market

Self-employment has been regarded as an important avenue for economic advancement for some groups with limited opportunities in the mainstream labour market. It has, however, been of minor significance to Indigenous Australians. In 1991, only 2.2 per cent of the Indigenous working-aged population were self-employed compared with 11.1 per cent of other Australians. This paper presents a comparison of the characteristics of self-employed Indigenous people with Indigenous wage and salary earners and other self-employed Australians. In comparison with Indigenous wage and salary earners, self-employed Indigenous people were more likely to be employed as tradespersons and to work in the private sector. They had lower levels of education than other self-employed Australians and were under-represented among managers and administrators and professionals

Education and employment for young Indigenous Australians, 1986 to 1991

The purpose of this paper is to present evidence on the educational and labour market status of young Indigenous Australians as reported in the 1991 Census, to build on similar work relating to 1986, and to provide information on the changes which have taken place between the two Census years. The data show that while there have been significant improvements in the educational levels of young Indigenous Australians, they remain behind those of other Australian youth. The evidence also shows that Indigenous youth were disadvantaged in the labour market; they were less likely to be in employment and more likely to be unemployed than other Australian youth. However, between 1986 and 1991, when conditions deteriorated in the Australian labour market in general, Indigenous youth experienced some growth in employment and a reduction in unemployment, the reverse of the patterns for other Australian youth. The important role of programs specific to Indigenous people in creating this result is discussed in the conclusion

The economic status of older Indigenous Australians

This paper uses data from the 1986 and 1991 Censuses to describe the position of older Indigenous people, those over 50 years of age, in the labour market. Older Indigenous people had markedly lower levels of education than other Australians in this age group. They were also less likely to be in employment and more likely to be unemployed or outside the labour force than their counterparts among other Australians. Those in employment were found mainly in public administrative and community services and were in low skilled occupations. These characteristics were reflected in their lower median incomes than other Australians. However, in comparing 1986 and 1991 Census results for this age group, there were some positive signs. The share of Indigenous people over 50 years of age with no schooling declined and the share in employment increased. There was also evidence of a relative decline in the importance of labouring as an occupation. These positive signs were not, however, reflected in an improvement in the income status of older Indigenous people relative to other older Australians. A mid-term review of the Aboriginal Employment Development Policy (AEDP) has recently been completed. While much of the associated policy rhetoric and assessment of policy outcomes has been aimed at the national level, the fiscal environment in which AEDP goals are to be achieved is invariably one of regional labour markets and administrative systems operating in the economic context of States and Territories. In view of this reality, this paper responds to a need for regional-level analyses of change in the economic status of Indigenous people compared to that of non-Indigenous people in each State and Territory. Using 1986 and 1991 Census-based social indicators for the Northern Territory, attention is focused on relative shifts in population growth and intra-State distribution, labour force and income status, and levels of welfare dependency (measured as non-employment income). A major finding is that while the gap in labour force status between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people has narrowed, the relative income status and level of welfare dependency of Indigenous people has worsened. This suggests that increased emphasis on the quality of AEDP outcomes, and not just quantity, will be necessary if the overall aims of the AEDP are to be accomplished

The determinants of employment income for Indigenous Australians

This paper considers the determinants of employment income for Indigenous Australians compared with non-Indigenous Australians. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression techniques are applied to 1991 Census data to consider the question: does the lower income of these Indigenous people reflect differences in their factor endowments (like education) rewarded in the labour market, or are they rewarded differently for the same set of endowments than are non-Indigenous Australians. The results show that the main source of lower incomes for Indigenous Australians was their smaller endowment of human capital characteristics. The paper concludes with a discussion of the policy implications of these results

The position of older Aboriginal people in the labour market

The focus of this paper is on the position of Aboriginal people over the age of 50 years in the labour market, as recorded in the 1986 Population Census. This group accounted for a smaller proportion of the adult Aboriginal population than this age group did in the Australian population in general. Aboriginal men and women in this age group were much less likely to be in paid employment than other Australians. In common with other Aboriginal people, those in employment were in less skilled occupations and were concentrated in the public sector and community services. The occupational distribution of these older Aboriginal people reflected much lower levels of educational attainment compared with other Australians. The paper includes a formal model of the determinants of labour force status for this group. The results show that after holding a range of factors constant, such as educational attainment, age, location of residence, and marital status, Aboriginality had a negative effect on the probability of being in full-time employment. Those with higher levels of education were more likely to be in full-time employment. An important issue for this age group, which requires further research using alternative data sources, is the effect of health status on the ability of people to participate in paid employment

The impact of welfare on the economic status of Aboriginal women

Despite the relatively low levels of employment among Aboriginal women, their average income, according to the 1986 Census, was not substantially lower than the average income of Australian women in general. The Census does not distinguish sources of income, but other evidence suggests that welfare payments are important in raising the average income of individual Aboriginal women to a level not very different from that of all Australian women. The Aboriginal Employment Development Policy (AEDP) has the stated goal of reducing Aboriginal welfare dependency and this paper considers some of the problems that will be associated with this goal for Aboriginal women. Expected earnings from full-time employment are predicted for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal women based on individual characteristics such as education, potential labour market experience, marital status and location of residence. These are compared with welfare entitlements in the calculation of a replacement ratio. The replacement ratio measures the extent to which income from welfare compensates for lack of income from employment. These calculations, which are a conservative estimate, show that the replacement ratio for Aboriginal women in 1986 was higher than for non-Aboriginal women. The results suggest that it will be difficult to reduce the welfare dependence of Aboriginal women and the implications of these findings for policy are discussed in the final section