Breed-related gastrointestinal diseases in dogs and cats

Bolesti probavnog sustava imaju za posljedicu brojne poremećaje koji se odnose na funkciju probave, apsorpcije, pasaže hrane kroz gastrointestinalni trakt i ostale funkcije. Najčešći simptomi poremećaja gastrointestinalnog sustava su: povraćanje, regurgitacija, proljev, bol i napinjanje pri defekaciji te krv ili sluz u fecesu. U većine gastrointestinalnih pacijenata kliničaru je dovoljno obaviti osnovne kliničke i laboratorijske pretrage kako bi došao do dijagnoze, no ponekad je potrebno provesti i dodatne dijagnostičke pretrage poput endoskopije, rentgenske pretrage ili dijagnostičke laparotomije. Bitno je napomenuti da određeni patološki procesi mogu zahvatiti više segmenata gastrointestinalnog sustava. Razumijevanje i prepoznavanje povezanosti pasmine i određene bolesti je važno iz nekoliko razloga. Potrebno je povezati određenu pasminu psa ili mačke s pojavnošću određenih bolesti, jer to znatno pomaže kliničaru u utvrđivanju diferencijalnih dijagnoza te smanjuje popis mogućih skupih i invazivnih dijagnostičkih testova i metoda. Poznavanje pasminskih predispozicija određene bolesti probavnog sustava pomaže veterinaru u poboljšanju davanja savjeta vlasnicima pasa i mačaka.Consequences of gastrointestinal disor- ders are digestive disorders, absorption, food passage through the gastrointestinal tract and other malfunctions. The most common symp- toms of gastrointestinal disorders are vomit- ing, regurgitation, pain, blood and mucilage in faeces. For the veterinarian, in most cases it is sufficient to perform basic clinical and labo- ratory tests to reach a diagnosis, although in some cases it is necessary to conduct addition- al diagnostic tests such as endoscopy, radio- graphic examination or diagnostic laparatomy. This Master’s thesis describes specific breed- related gastrointestinal disorders in dogs and cats. The most common gastrointestinal disor- ders are presented (oropharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon and anorectum). Understanding and recognizing breed associations is important for several reasons. Known or suspected associations help guide the clinician in considering a list of reason- able differential diagnoses, and in narrowing down the list of costly or invasive diagnostic tests. Knowledge of breed predispositions as- sists veterinarians in providing advice to pet owners and aspiring pet owners. Although a specific genetic deficiency may not be treat- able, knowledge of underlying pathogenesis may help to develop better therapies, even if nonspecific, thereby improving the patient ́s long-term prognosis

Razina plazmatičnog kortizola u nazimica tretiranih imunostimulatorom virusnog podrijetla (Parapoxvirus ovis) u kasnoj fazi gravidnosti.

The goal of these investigations was to check if two-time treatment of gilts by Baypamun® before transferring from the pre-farrowing to farrowing unit can activate natural killer cells, stimulate leukocyte production and lymphocyte proliferation, and decrease the rise in plasma cortisol caused by stress. The investigation comprised 30 one year-old Swedish Landrace gilts in the late phase of gravidity, which were divided into three groups. Group 1 formed a control group, from blood which was taken in the the pre-farrowing unit in order to enable comparison of the results of plasma cortisol with results obtained in the other two groups. In group 2, Baypamun in a dose of 2 ml i/m at days 7 and 5 was applied, and in group 3 at days 3 and 1 prior to transferral from the pre-farrowing to farrowing unit. After gilts in groups 2 and 3 had been transferred four days prior to farrowing, blood was taken from them at days 1, 3 and 5 of their stay in the farrowing unit. Plasma cortisol was analyzed by the radioimmunochemical (RIA) method. The obtained results by groups were compared with each other using one-way analysis of variance. According to the obtained results an average level of plasma cortisol of the gilts in groups 2 and 3 throughout the research was higher than in control group 1. A significant statistical difference (P < 0.05) appeared between control group 1 and group 3 at day 1 of the stay of gilts in the farrowing unit. Therefore, an anti-stress effect of Baypamun occurred between days 1 and 3 of the stay in the farrowing unit, i.e. by the day of farrowing, when the level of plasma cortisol again began to rise due to stress caused by partus.Cilj ovih istraživanja bio je provjeriti može li dvokratno tretiranje nazimica Baypamunom prije premještanja iz čekališta u prasilište aktivirati prirodne stanice ubojice, potaknuti stvaranje leukocita i proliferaciju limfocita te sniziti porast kortizola uzrokovan stresom. Istraživanje je provedeno na 30 jednogodišnjih nazimica pasmine švedski landras u kasnoj fazi gravidnosti podijeljenih u tri skupine. Prva skupina bila je kontrolna. Drugoj skupini nazimica dano je 2 ml Baypamuna im. 7. i 5. dana prije preseljenja iz čekališta u prasilište, a trećoj skupini 3. i 1. dana prije preseljenja. Nakon što su nazimice iz druge i treće skupine preseljene, njima je prvog, trećeg i petog dana boravka u prasilištu izvađena krv. Plazmatični kortizol je određivan radioimunokemijskom (RIA) metodom. Dobiveni podatci međusobno su uspoređeni jednosmjernom analizom varijance. Prosječna razina plazmatičnog kortizola nazimica u drugoj i trećoj skupini bila je veća nego u kontrolnoj skupini. Pri tome je značajne statistička razlika (P < 0.05) ustanovljena prvog dana boravka u prasilištu između kontrolne i treće skupine. Prema dobivenim rezultatima protustresni učinak Baypamuna očitovao se 1. i 3. dana boravka u prasilištu

Adverse food reactions in dogs that affect the gastrointestinal system and skin

Nepovoljne reakcije na hranu predstavljaju svaki oblik neželjene i nepredvidljive reakcije na pojedine alergene iz hrane. U osnovi ih di- jelimo na prave imunosno uvjetovane alergije te reakcije preosjetljivosti na određene sastoj- ke hrane, odnosno intoleranciju na hranu. Intolerancija na hranu uključuje različite oblike nepovoljnih reakcija: idiosinkraziju, toksičnost hrane/trovanje hranom, anafilaktičku, metaboličku te farmakološku reakciju na hranu. U tipičnom obliku intolerancija na hranu manife- stira se gastrointestinalnim simptomima, naj- češće proljevom i povraćanjem. S druge strane, alergija ili preosjetljivost na hranu imunosno je posredovana reakcija, uglavnom se radi o preosjetljivosti tipa I posredovanoj imunoglo- bulinima E (IgE), a promjene na koži praćene izrazitim pruritusom glavni su oblik manifestacije ovog tipa nepovoljnih reakcija na hra- nu. Pojava nesezonskog pruritusa u pasa u kombinaciji s gastrointestinalnim simptomima povećava sumnju na nepovoljne reakcije na hranu. Psi najčešće razviju alergiju na sastojke kojima su i najčešće izloženi, a oni uključuju: govedinu, piletinu, kukuruz, pšenicu i mliječne proizvode. U kliničkoj praksi alergije na hra- nu kod pasa često ostanu nedijagnosticirane, a neki od razloga tome su sljedeći: istovremena prisutnost kliničkih znakova drugih alergijskih stanja ili poremećaja, prisutnost sekundarnih bakterijskih infekcija koje prikrivaju primarnu kliničku sliku, nepotpuna ili netočna anamne- za dobivena od vlasnika, nedostatak dostupnih dijagnostičkih testova. Ukoliko se vlasnici od- luče za hranu pripremljenu kod kuće, važno je zadovoljiti osnovne nutritivne potrebe psa s obzirom na sadržaj proteina i ugljikohidrata te nadomjestiti pojedine vitamine i minerale defi- citarne kod ovog oblika prehrane. Unatoč tome što zahtijeva velik trud i posvećenost vlasnika, a i sama provedba je dugotrajna, eliminacij- ska i provokacijska dijeta još uvijek se smatra jedinim adekvatnim načinom identifikacije pojedinog alergena, odnosno dijagnosticiranja preosjetljivosti na hranu. Dugoročna terapija nepovoljnih reakcija na hranu, bez obzira radi li se o intoleranciji na hranu ili specifičnoj pre- osjetljivosti, temelji se na izbacivanju inkrimini- rajuće namirnice iz prehrane pacijenta. Uspješnost terapije ovisit će o temeljitom i dosljednom provođenju eliminacijske i provokacijske dijete uz neizostavnu suradnju i dobru komunikaciju između veterinara i vlasnika životinje. Ukoliko se poremećaj točno identificira te liječi adekvat- nom eliminacijskom dijetom, prognoza nepo- voljnih reakcija na hranu u pravilu je povoljna.Adverse food reactions represent every undesirable and unpredictable type of reaction following the ingestion of any food allergen. In general, adverse food reactions are divided into immunologically mediated reactions – food allergies, and non- immunologically mediated hypersensitivity reactions to different food components – food intolerance. Food intolerance includes various types of reactions: food idiosyncrasy, food intoxication/poisoning, anaphylactic, metabolic and pharmacological food reaction. Typically, food intolerance elicits gastrointestinal manifestations, the most common of which include diarrhoea and vomiting. Food allergy mostly involves Type I (IgE-mediated) hypersensitivity responses, and skin lesions with intensive pruritus are the most common clinical manifestation of this reaction type. Non-seasonal pruritic disease with concurrent gastrointestinal signs always raises the suspicion of adverse food reactions. The most common ingredients that dogs are allergic to are those to which they are most commonly exposed: beef, chicken, corn, wheat and dairy products. It is often difficult for clinicians to diagnose food allergies in dogs for several reasons: presence of clinical signs of other allergies or conditions, presence of secondary infections, incomplete and inaccurate history provided by the client, lack of available diagnostic tests. If a home-cooked diet trial is to be pursued, it will need to meet at least the basic nutritional requirements of the patient with regards to protein and carbohydrate content, and vitamin and mineral supplementation. Despite being time consuming and demanding a lot of effort from the dog’s owner, dietary elimination and challenge trials are still the most effective way of identifying a particular allergen and diagnosing food hypersensitivity. Long- term management of adverse food reactions, regardless of whether it is an intolerance or specific hypersensitivity, involves avoidance of the specific food. To be successful, thorough challenge trials to identify the offending food are required, as well as good communication and collaboration between veterinarians and pet owners. The prognosis for adverse food reactions is generally good once the disorder is correctly identified and treated with a dietary elimination trial

Diagnosis of Liver Diseases in Dogs

Funkcija jetre izrazito je raznolika, naime ona sudjeluje u brojnim metaboličkim i biokemijskim procesima, skladištenju vitamina, proizvodnji gotovo svih faktora za zgrušavanje krvi te u stvaranju žuči koja pomaže u probavi i otklanjanju otpadnih tvari iz krvi detoksikacijom određenih toksina i lijekova. Klinički znakovi bolesti hepatobilijarnog sustava veoma su raznoliki i uglavnom nespecifični, poput anoreksije, depresije, povraćanja i proljeva, zbog čega je nužan pravilan odabir kombinacije dijagnostičkih metoda u daljnjem tijeku dijagnosticiranja. Rutinskom biokemijskom pretragom seruma može se uočiti povećana aktivnost jetrenih enzima, poput alanin-aminotransferaze (ALT) i aspartat-aminotransferaze (AST) te alkalne fosfataze (AP) i gama-glutamiltransferaze (GGT) koji su nešto specifičniji za bolesti bilijarnog sustava, hipoalbuminemija, hiperbilirubinemija, smanjena koncentracija ureje i glukoze. Uvid u funkcionalnu sposobnost jetre, izlučivanje žuči i enterohepatičnu cirkulaciju može nam omogućiti mjerenje koncentracije žučnih kiselina u serumu prije i nakon obroka. U slikovnoj dijagnostici rendgenska pretraga abdomena upotpunjuje kliničku pretragu te omogućuje subjektivnu procjenu veličine i položaja jetre. Ultrazvučna pretraga omogućuje detaljni uvid u vaskularne i žučne strukture te procjenu vezanu uz promjenu u ehogenosti i ehostrukturi parenhima. Sve se češće u dijagnostici bolesti jetre radi i pretraga kompjutoriziranom tomografijom (CT-om), a temelj je objektivne dijagnostike biopsija.The liver’s function is extremely diverse; it produces bile that helps in digestion and removing waste products from the blood, detoxicates some of the toxins and drugs, and is included in numerous metabolic and biochemical processes. The liver also stores vitamins and produces almost every coagulation factor that promotes blood clot formation. Clinical signs of hepatobiliary diseases are highly diverse and usually nonspecific, such as anorexia, depression, vomiting, and diarrhea. Therefore, choosing a specific diagnostic method is necessary for further diagnostic processes. With routine biochemistry panel screening, increased activity of liver enzymes can be found, such as Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or Alkaline phosphatase (AP) and Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), which are somewhat more specific for biliary diseases, hypoalbuminemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and decreased concentrations of urea and glucose. By measuring serum bile acid concentration before and after a meal, we can get an insight into the liver’s function, bile excretion, and enterohepatic circulation. Radiographic evaluation of the abdomen, as part of diagnostic imaging, is used to complement the physical examination and can help in the subjective evaluation of the size and position of the liver. Ultrasonography allows a more detailed understanding of vascular and biliary liver structures. It also allows an assessment regarding parenchymal echogenicity and echostructure. Computed tomography (CT) examination is becoming more common in diagnosing liver diseases, but the basis of objective diagnostics is a biopsy

Most common esophageal diseases in dogs

Jednjak je cjevasti organ koji povezuje ždrijelo sa želucem, a glavna mu je funkcija prijenos hrane iz usne šupljine do želuca. Bolesti jednjaka u pasa imaju manju pojavnost u odnosu na ostale bolesti probavnog sustava. Mogu se pojaviti kao samostalne bolesti i sekundarno, zbog drugih bolesti. Najučestalije su upala jednjaka (ezofagitis), gastroezofagusni refluks, opstrukcija stranim tijelom, strikture jednjaka, megaezofagus, hijatusna kila, gastroezofagusna intususcepcija i anomalije vaskularnog prstena koje uzrokuju parcijalnu opstrukciju jednjaka. Klinički znakovi kojima se te bolesti očituju jesu regurgitacija, bolno i otežano gutanje, pojačano slinjenje, povraćanje, gušenje i kašalj uzrokovan aspiracijom sadržaja. U dijagnostici svih bolesti jednjaka danas se primarno radi endoskopska pretraga. Uz nju se rade i rendgenska, ultrazvučna i videofluoroskopska pretraga. Uspješnost liječenja ovisi o etiopatogenezi bolesti, pravodobnom postavljanju dijagnoze, pravilnoj i prilagođenoj medikamentnoj terapiji.The esophagus is a tubular organ that connects the throat (pharynx) with the stomach. Its main function being food transfer from the mouth to the stomach. Canine esophageal diseases are less common in relation to other digestive diseases. They occur as secondary illnesses or as an independent disease. The most common esophageal diseases are esophagitis, gastro-esophageal reflux, foreign body obstruction, esophageal strictures, megaesophagus, hiatal hernias, gastro- esophageal intussusception and vascular ring anomalies. Clinical signs that manifest these disorders include regurgitation, painful and difficult swallowing, increased snuff, vomiting, choking, coughing, consequent aspiration of the contents. The golden standard for diagnosing all diseases is endoscopic examination. Along with it, radiography, ultrasonography and videofluoroscopic scanning are used. The success of the treatment depends on the pathogenesis of disease, timely diagnosis, proper and customized medical therapies

Adverse food reactions in dogs that affect the gastrointestinal system and skin

Nepovoljne reakcije na hranu predstavljaju svaki oblik neželjene i nepredvidljive reakcije na pojedine alergene iz hrane. U osnovi ih di- jelimo na prave imunosno uvjetovane alergije te reakcije preosjetljivosti na određene sastoj- ke hrane, odnosno intoleranciju na hranu. Intolerancija na hranu uključuje različite oblike nepovoljnih reakcija: idiosinkraziju, toksičnost hrane/trovanje hranom, anafilaktičku, metaboličku te farmakološku reakciju na hranu. U tipičnom obliku intolerancija na hranu manife- stira se gastrointestinalnim simptomima, naj- češće proljevom i povraćanjem. S druge strane, alergija ili preosjetljivost na hranu imunosno je posredovana reakcija, uglavnom se radi o preosjetljivosti tipa I posredovanoj imunoglo- bulinima E (IgE), a promjene na koži praćene izrazitim pruritusom glavni su oblik manifestacije ovog tipa nepovoljnih reakcija na hra- nu. Pojava nesezonskog pruritusa u pasa u kombinaciji s gastrointestinalnim simptomima povećava sumnju na nepovoljne reakcije na hranu. Psi najčešće razviju alergiju na sastojke kojima su i najčešće izloženi, a oni uključuju: govedinu, piletinu, kukuruz, pšenicu i mliječne proizvode. U kliničkoj praksi alergije na hra- nu kod pasa često ostanu nedijagnosticirane, a neki od razloga tome su sljedeći: istovremena prisutnost kliničkih znakova drugih alergijskih stanja ili poremećaja, prisutnost sekundarnih bakterijskih infekcija koje prikrivaju primarnu kliničku sliku, nepotpuna ili netočna anamne- za dobivena od vlasnika, nedostatak dostupnih dijagnostičkih testova. Ukoliko se vlasnici od- luče za hranu pripremljenu kod kuće, važno je zadovoljiti osnovne nutritivne potrebe psa s obzirom na sadržaj proteina i ugljikohidrata te nadomjestiti pojedine vitamine i minerale defi- citarne kod ovog oblika prehrane. Unatoč tome što zahtijeva velik trud i posvećenost vlasnika, a i sama provedba je dugotrajna, eliminacij- ska i provokacijska dijeta još uvijek se smatra jedinim adekvatnim načinom identifikacije pojedinog alergena, odnosno dijagnosticiranja preosjetljivosti na hranu. Dugoročna terapija nepovoljnih reakcija na hranu, bez obzira radi li se o intoleranciji na hranu ili specifičnoj pre- osjetljivosti, temelji se na izbacivanju inkrimini- rajuće namirnice iz prehrane pacijenta. Uspješnost terapije ovisit će o temeljitom i dosljednom provođenju eliminacijske i provokacijske dijete uz neizostavnu suradnju i dobru komunikaciju između veterinara i vlasnika životinje. Ukoliko se poremećaj točno identificira te liječi adekvat- nom eliminacijskom dijetom, prognoza nepo- voljnih reakcija na hranu u pravilu je povoljna.Adverse food reactions represent every undesirable and unpredictable type of reaction following the ingestion of any food allergen. In general, adverse food reactions are divided into immunologically mediated reactions – food allergies, and non- immunologically mediated hypersensitivity reactions to different food components – food intolerance. Food intolerance includes various types of reactions: food idiosyncrasy, food intoxication/poisoning, anaphylactic, metabolic and pharmacological food reaction. Typically, food intolerance elicits gastrointestinal manifestations, the most common of which include diarrhoea and vomiting. Food allergy mostly involves Type I (IgE-mediated) hypersensitivity responses, and skin lesions with intensive pruritus are the most common clinical manifestation of this reaction type. Non-seasonal pruritic disease with concurrent gastrointestinal signs always raises the suspicion of adverse food reactions. The most common ingredients that dogs are allergic to are those to which they are most commonly exposed: beef, chicken, corn, wheat and dairy products. It is often difficult for clinicians to diagnose food allergies in dogs for several reasons: presence of clinical signs of other allergies or conditions, presence of secondary infections, incomplete and inaccurate history provided by the client, lack of available diagnostic tests. If a home-cooked diet trial is to be pursued, it will need to meet at least the basic nutritional requirements of the patient with regards to protein and carbohydrate content, and vitamin and mineral supplementation. Despite being time consuming and demanding a lot of effort from the dog’s owner, dietary elimination and challenge trials are still the most effective way of identifying a particular allergen and diagnosing food hypersensitivity. Long- term management of adverse food reactions, regardless of whether it is an intolerance or specific hypersensitivity, involves avoidance of the specific food. To be successful, thorough challenge trials to identify the offending food are required, as well as good communication and collaboration between veterinarians and pet owners. The prognosis for adverse food reactions is generally good once the disorder is correctly identified and treated with a dietary elimination trial

Diagnosis of Liver Diseases in Dogs

Funkcija jetre izrazito je raznolika, naime ona sudjeluje u brojnim metaboličkim i biokemijskim procesima, skladištenju vitamina, proizvodnji gotovo svih faktora za zgrušavanje krvi te u stvaranju žuči koja pomaže u probavi i otklanjanju otpadnih tvari iz krvi detoksikacijom određenih toksina i lijekova. Klinički znakovi bolesti hepatobilijarnog sustava veoma su raznoliki i uglavnom nespecifični, poput anoreksije, depresije, povraćanja i proljeva, zbog čega je nužan pravilan odabir kombinacije dijagnostičkih metoda u daljnjem tijeku dijagnosticiranja. Rutinskom biokemijskom pretragom seruma može se uočiti povećana aktivnost jetrenih enzima, poput alanin-aminotransferaze (ALT) i aspartat-aminotransferaze (AST) te alkalne fosfataze (AP) i gama-glutamiltransferaze (GGT) koji su nešto specifičniji za bolesti bilijarnog sustava, hipoalbuminemija, hiperbilirubinemija, smanjena koncentracija ureje i glukoze. Uvid u funkcionalnu sposobnost jetre, izlučivanje žuči i enterohepatičnu cirkulaciju može nam omogućiti mjerenje koncentracije žučnih kiselina u serumu prije i nakon obroka. U slikovnoj dijagnostici rendgenska pretraga abdomena upotpunjuje kliničku pretragu te omogućuje subjektivnu procjenu veličine i položaja jetre. Ultrazvučna pretraga omogućuje detaljni uvid u vaskularne i žučne strukture te procjenu vezanu uz promjenu u ehogenosti i ehostrukturi parenhima. Sve se češće u dijagnostici bolesti jetre radi i pretraga kompjutoriziranom tomografijom (CT-om), a temelj je objektivne dijagnostike biopsija.The liver’s function is extremely diverse; it produces bile that helps in digestion and removing waste products from the blood, detoxicates some of the toxins and drugs, and is included in numerous metabolic and biochemical processes. The liver also stores vitamins and produces almost every coagulation factor that promotes blood clot formation. Clinical signs of hepatobiliary diseases are highly diverse and usually nonspecific, such as anorexia, depression, vomiting, and diarrhea. Therefore, choosing a specific diagnostic method is necessary for further diagnostic processes. With routine biochemistry panel screening, increased activity of liver enzymes can be found, such as Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or Alkaline phosphatase (AP) and Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), which are somewhat more specific for biliary diseases, hypoalbuminemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and decreased concentrations of urea and glucose. By measuring serum bile acid concentration before and after a meal, we can get an insight into the liver’s function, bile excretion, and enterohepatic circulation. Radiographic evaluation of the abdomen, as part of diagnostic imaging, is used to complement the physical examination and can help in the subjective evaluation of the size and position of the liver. Ultrasonography allows a more detailed understanding of vascular and biliary liver structures. It also allows an assessment regarding parenchymal echogenicity and echostructure. Computed tomography (CT) examination is becoming more common in diagnosing liver diseases, but the basis of objective diagnostics is a biopsy

Most common esophageal diseases in dogs

Jednjak je cjevasti organ koji povezuje ždrijelo sa želucem, a glavna mu je funkcija prijenos hrane iz usne šupljine do želuca. Bolesti jednjaka u pasa imaju manju pojavnost u odnosu na ostale bolesti probavnog sustava. Mogu se pojaviti kao samostalne bolesti i sekundarno, zbog drugih bolesti. Najučestalije su upala jednjaka (ezofagitis), gastroezofagusni refluks, opstrukcija stranim tijelom, strikture jednjaka, megaezofagus, hijatusna kila, gastroezofagusna intususcepcija i anomalije vaskularnog prstena koje uzrokuju parcijalnu opstrukciju jednjaka. Klinički znakovi kojima se te bolesti očituju jesu regurgitacija, bolno i otežano gutanje, pojačano slinjenje, povraćanje, gušenje i kašalj uzrokovan aspiracijom sadržaja. U dijagnostici svih bolesti jednjaka danas se primarno radi endoskopska pretraga. Uz nju se rade i rendgenska, ultrazvučna i videofluoroskopska pretraga. Uspješnost liječenja ovisi o etiopatogenezi bolesti, pravodobnom postavljanju dijagnoze, pravilnoj i prilagođenoj medikamentnoj terapiji.The esophagus is a tubular organ that connects the throat (pharynx) with the stomach. Its main function being food transfer from the mouth to the stomach. Canine esophageal diseases are less common in relation to other digestive diseases. They occur as secondary illnesses or as an independent disease. The most common esophageal diseases are esophagitis, gastro-esophageal reflux, foreign body obstruction, esophageal strictures, megaesophagus, hiatal hernias, gastro- esophageal intussusception and vascular ring anomalies. Clinical signs that manifest these disorders include regurgitation, painful and difficult swallowing, increased snuff, vomiting, choking, coughing, consequent aspiration of the contents. The golden standard for diagnosing all diseases is endoscopic examination. Along with it, radiography, ultrasonography and videofluoroscopic scanning are used. The success of the treatment depends on the pathogenesis of disease, timely diagnosis, proper and customized medical therapies

Učestalost displazije kuka pasa u Hrvatskoj na temelju rengenološke pretrage.

The subject of this study was to detect the prevalence of hip dysplasia according to official radiographic screening between 2001 and 2009. The overall number of dogs tested for HD was 5381, belonging to 137 breeds. In 2001 the number of dogs evaluated was 403, and in 2009 this number rose to 856, which is an increase of 212.40%. In 2001 the number of breeds evaluated was 48, and in 2007 this number rose to 79 breeds, which is an increase of 164.58%. In the overall sample there were 2125 (39.5%) males and 3256 (60.5%) females. The mean age was around 24 months. According to the FCI scale, C, D and E grades are interpreted as dysplastic hips. In our sample 4372 (81.25% ) dogs were found to be free of dysplasia (A, B), while HD was found in 1009 (18.75%) dogs. In the period between 2001 and 2009 there was a visible trend of a reduction in the number of dogs with dysplasia. There was a significant difference (P<0.05) between 2001 on the one hand and 2005 and 2006 on the other. In 2001 there were 27.79% of dogs with dysplasia, while in 2005 this number fell to 14.81% and in 2006 to 14.51%. There was no statistical significance in the prevalence of HD in males and in females (P=0.20). The difference in age, however, was significant, and dogs with dysplasia were older on average (P<0.05). The results of our study show that the programme of selection on the basis of radiography of hips should be continued in order to improve the quality of purebred dog breeds in Croatia.Predmet ovog istraživanja bio je ustanoviti prevalenciju displazije kukova na temelju službenih rengenoloških pretraga između 2001. i 2009. godine. Ukupan broj pregledanih pasa na displaziju kukova bio je 5381, 137 različitih pasmina. Godine 2001. bila su ocijenjena 403 psa, a 2009. broj se povećao na 856, što je povećanje od 212,40%. Godine 2001. bilo je ocjenjivano 48 pasmina, a 2007. broj pasmina se povećao na 79, što je povećanje od 164,58%. U ukupnom uzorku bilo je 2125 mužjaka (39,5%) i 3256 ženki (60,5%). Srednja dob je bila oko 24 mjeseca. Prema FCI skali C, D i E stupnjevi smatraju se displastičnim kukovima. U našem uzorku 4372 (81,25%) psa nisu imala displaziju (A,B), dok je displazija kukova bila dijagnosticirana u 1009 (18,75%) pasa. U razdoblju između 2001. i 2009. godine vidljivo je kretanje pada broja pasa s displazijom. Postoji statistički značajna razlika (P<0,05) između 2001. godine s jedne strane, i 2005. i 2006. godine s druge strane. Godine 2001. bilo je 27,79% pasa s displazijom, dok se 2005. taj broj smanjio na 14,81% te 2006. na 14,51%. Ne postoji statistički značajna razlika u prevalenciji displazije kukova u mužjaka i ženki (P=0,20). Razlika u dobi je, međutim, značajna te su psi s displazijom u prosjeku starije dobi (P<0,05). Rezultati našeg istraživanja pokazuju da program selekcije na temelju rengenološkoga snimanja kukova treba nastaviti da bi se poboljšala kvaliteta čistokrvnih pasmina pasa u Hrvatskoj

Koncentracije kortizola u plazmi nazimica tretiranih imunomodulatorom tijekom rane fazegravidnosti.

The goal of this research was to ascertain if multiple immunomodulation can decrease stress consequences of gilt relocation from the service station to the prefarrowing unit during the early gravidity phase. Three groups of pregnant Swedish Landrace gilts, 8 to 9 months of age, were encompassed by the research. Each group consisted of 30 pregnant gilts, and each researched group was treated differently. The animals in group A were given the immunomodulator intramuscularly in doses of 2 ml (Baypamun®, Bayer Pharma, Leverkusen, Germany) on the 6th, 4th and 2nd days before the relocation from the service station to the prefarrowing unit. It was also administered to the animals in group B intramuscularly in doses of 2 ml on the 5th, 3rd and 1st days before the relocation from the service station to the prefarrowing unit. Group C was not treated. Blood was sampled from the aforementioned gilts on the 2nd, 4th and 6th days, during their stay at the prefarrowing unit. During the research period statistically significant differences in plasma cortisol concentration were established (P<0.01) between the treated (groups A and B) and not-treated groups (group C). The mean plasma cortisol concentration was the lowest in group A, whereat values determined on the 4th and 6th days of stay in the prefarrowing unit were significantly lower in comparison to values in group B (P<0.01). The mean plasma cortisol concentration in group C was higher than the reference values for pigs. In all three gilt groups an increase in plasma cortisol concentration was noted during their stay in the prefarrowing unit, so that mean values on day 6 were significantly lower (P<0.01) in comparison to values determined on the 2nd day of stay in the prefarrowing unit. The aforementioned results demonstrate that immunomodulation alleviates hormonal changes that occur as a response to a stressful situation and refer to the positive effects of immunomodulator after the reduction of stress susceptibility.Cilj ovoga istraživanja bio je utvrditi može li višekratna imunomodulacija smanjiti posljedice stresa zbog preseljenja nazimica iz pripuštališta u čekalište tijekom rane faze gravidnosti. Istraživanje je obuhvatilo tri skupine gravidnih nazimica pasmine švedski landras, u dobi od 8 do 9 mjeseci. Svaka skupina životinja sadržavala je 30 gravidnih nazimica. Tri istraživane skupine nazimica bile su različito obrađivane. Skupini A primijenjen je imunomodulator (Baypamun®) 6, 4 i 2 dana, a skupini B 5, 3 i 1 dan prije preseljenja iz pripuštališta u čekalište. Navedeni imunomodulator dan je intramuskularno u dozi od 2 ml u obje skupine nazimica. Skupina C nije bila obrađivana imunomodulatorom prije preseljenja iz pripuštališta u čekalište. Nazimicama svih navedenih skupina izvađena je krv 2., 4. i 6. dana boravka u čekalištu. U istraživanom razdoblju utvrđene su statistički značajne razlike (P<0,01) u koncentraciji kortizola između imunomodulatorom tretiranih skupina A i B i netretirane skupine C. Prosječne koncentracije kortizola bile su najmanje u skupini A, pri čemu su vrijednosti utvrđene četvrtoga i šestoga dana boravka u čekalištu bile statistički značajno manje u odnosu na skupinu B (P<0,01). Prosječne koncentracije kortizola utvrđene u netretiranoj skupini C bile su veće od referentnog raspona za svinje. U sve tri skupine nazimica zabilježen je pad koncentracije kortizola u krvnoj plazmi tijekom boravka u čekalištu, tako da su prosječne vrijednosti utvrđene šestoga dana boravka u čekalištu bile statistički značajno manje (P<0,01) u odnosu na koncentracije kortizola utvrđene drugoga dana boravka u čekalištu. Navedeni rezultati pokazuju da imunomodulacija ublažava hormonalne promjene nastale kao odgovor na stresna stanja i upućuje na pozitivno djelovanje imunomodulatora u smanjenju stresne osjetljivosti