5 research outputs found
Practice of double transplanting (Sanda method) in rice: small holder farmers’ adaptation to multiple stressors in a sub-humid climate
Small-holder farmers world over are increasingly experiencing the challenges caused by the extreme climate
variability, land degradation, low incomes and weak policy support making them extremely vulnerable to
climate change induced risks. Dismal adaptive capacity, virtual absence of an enabling policy environment
and the weak interface with the formal knowledge providers are the factors compelling such farmers to
develop their own location specific practices for effective adaptation to such stressors. This paper examines
how small-holder farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh (UP) are using the local knowledge for sustaining the rice
yields in a multiple stress environment. Study was carried out with 45 key knowledge farmers selected
randomly from 9 villages, i.e ., three each from three purposively selected districts (Azamgarh, Jaunpur and
Gajipur) of eastern UP. Data were collected using intensive transect walk, participant observations, distant
learning and informal interactions, and personal interviews using a structured questionnaire in combination
with the soil testing results. Results indicated that farmers are experiencing reduced number of rainy days,
extended summers and short winters than earlier. Some new insect-pests and weeds have emerged in the
past two decades. Moderate to high soil sodicity (pH2 8.4-10.1), waterlogging in low-lying lands in canal
commands and acute labour shortages due to increased migration to cities and employment opportunities
under MGNREGA scheme have considerably increased the vulnerability of these farmers. Furthermore, weak
policy support and the poor access to the recommended technologies seem to have further decreased their
adaptive capacity as evident from very low rice yields (1.8-3.5 q ha1). As income from rice crop is a major
source of livelihood to them, studied farmers are increasingly adopting the sanda method of double rice
transplanting to enhance the resilience of the rice agro-ecosystems. In this method, farmers broadcast only
about a fifth (6-8 kg ha-1) of the recommended seed rate (30-40 kg ha-1) in puddled fields around mid-May
using tube well water. After about 25 days (i.e ., around 15th June), the seedlings are uprooted and
transplanted in another field where they are grown for about 20 days (5-10 July). About 50-55 days old
seedlings are then moved to the main fields. Rice crop grown using sanda technique withstands extended
dry spells in the uplands and prolonged water inundation in the low-lying fields. Almost negligible incidence
of pests and diseases ensures little or virtually no use of pesticides. Compared with the puddled transplanted
rice, sanda method provides about 20-25% higher grain yield. This community-knowledge, which probably
originated in the eastern parts of India, has gradually spread to the eastern UP via migrant labourers from
Bihar and West Bengal. This method of rice growing represents a characteristic example of autonomous
adaptation to alleviate the risks caused by multiple stressors. Notably, this method has now become a part
of the agricultural contingency plan of the State Government. It is possible that sanda technique may be of
immense use in rice-wheat system of north-western India where a multitude of problems including
widespread land degradation, water scarcity, pest and disease outbreaks and declining crop yields have
caused immense harm
Open well irrigation in arid parts of Rajasthan: Adaptation to multiple stressors affecting agricultural sustainability
Resource scarcity and exposure to multiple stressors have compelled the small-holder farmers world over to
develop location-specific adaptation strategies to sustain their livelihoods; especially in risk-prone
ecosystems. This paper attempts to understand two questions: (i) how agro-ecological knowledge of farmers
of Pali district, Rajasthan, India is used to harvest the rainwater through open-wells to sustain the
agricultural production, and (ii) how different stressors are impacting the socio-ecological resilience of these
agro-ecosystems. To answer these questions, a study was carried out with 20 key informants from four
purposively selected villages of Pali district. Data were collected through transect walk, soil and water
sampling, focus group discussions, personal interviews, participant observations and telephonic discussions.
Results indicated that rain water, open-well system and river water (Luni river at few places) constitute the
main sources of water for sustaining crop and animal production. Over 85.0% of the studied farmers owned
1-4 open-wells (CV: 47.0%). On an average, 300 to 500 farmers obtained irrigation water from a single openwell
to irrigate an average 2.72 ha (0.48-8.0 ha, with CV: 7.0%) of the crop land. During November to
December, one open-well having 60-70 feet high watertable could supply water for about 15-18 hours which
reduces to 6-8 hours during February-March. The major crops grown using open-well water are cumin, wheat, mustard and fenugreek. At most of the locations, 25-30% of such wells have gone dry, and, at some
places, as much as 80% of the open-wells (e.g., in Rampura, Rohat block) are now dry. In such wells, the
remaining water is too saline (ECiw ~5.5-13.2) for irrigation. Reduced number of rainy days as well as
restricted seepage from the drying Luni river seem to have accentuated the salinity problem. The water
storage in the river bed has considerably reduced over time resulting in reduced seepage to the adjacent
agricultural lands. These hydrological changes have adversely affected the soil health with far reaching
consequences for water and nutrient availability and sustainability of the local cropping systems. Many
locally adapted landraces in crops such as cumin and chilli are on the verge of extinction, while area under
wheat has decreased. Farmers’ dependence on external sources for seeds and other vital inputs has also
increased. In a nutshell, rapidly declining watertable and the concurrent increase in salinity, likely to be
aggravated by climate variability, may attain alarming proportions in the coming period. In order to
overcome this situation, a multipronged, community-based approach with polycentric policy support is
urgently required to revive the open-wells which were once the lifeline of these rural communities in Pali
district of Rajasthan
Conservation of soil moisture to earn cash: An autonomous and opportunistic agro-ecological adaptation in semi-arid climate of Rajasthan, India
Autonomous adaptation is a strategy developed and used by the material resource-poor farmers (MRP) in
resource scarce regions of the world. This paper attempts to understand how local farmers experience
multiple stressors and respond to them through local knowledge and practices. A study was carried out with
a total of 20 key informants from four purposively selected villages lying in Hemawas check dam area of Pali
district, Rajasthan, India. Data were collected using transect walk, focus group discussions, personal
interviews, participant observations and telephonic discussions. Results indicated that an overwhelming
majority (˃84.0%) of the farmers were experiencing delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon, and
erratic rainfall. Respondents believed that in addition to climate variability, socio-political changes are also
adversely impacting their livelihoods. In response to the growing water scarcity, these farmers increasingly
utilize the residual soil moisture in fields lying in the Hemawas dam catchment to grow diverse crops for
sustaining their livelihoods. The lands where farmers earlier cultivated wheat, barley, chickpea and mustard
crops, now suffer from water scarcity and salinity, are being increasingly diverted to grow muskmelon which
is seen as an opportunistic adaptation with high profit realizations. It emerged during study that anomalies
in atmospheric temperature and terminal heat during February-March have negatively impacted the Rabi
crops. Muskmelon cultivation is gathering momentum in such marginal soils as it adapts well to the adverse
conditions, requires the least use of external inputs and provides handsome returns in a short span of about
3 months. In the uplands adjacent to the dam, farmers still raise late sown varieties of barley and wheat
crops (sowing is done even up to second week of January). When water recedes from the catchment area,
locally available muskmelon seeds are manually sown in ploughed fields during the last week of February.
Prior to sowing, the seeds are immersed in the lukewarm water followed by wrapping in moist jute bags.
Wrapped seeds are kept overnight for hastening the germination. The farmers level the fields when the
seedlings have attained an age of 2-3 weeks to retain the water for extended period of time. This practice
also lowers the incidence of insect-pests. Easy market access through muskmelon contractors also makes it a
lucrative adaptation activity. During the entire duration of muskmelon crop (March to May), there is minimal
competition with other agricultural activities such that farmers are able to concentrate on raising a
profitable crop. Muskmelon cultivation in the studied villages is essentially a women-dependent and
women-empowering activity as they are almost exclusively responsible for raising and nurturing the crop for
monetary benefits. This study provides an insight about how formal and informal knowledge can be
hybridized to co-produce more robust adaptation strategies to convert stressors into opportunity