Practice of double transplanting (Sanda method) in rice: small holder farmers’ adaptation to multiple stressors in a sub-humid climate

Small-holder farmers world over are increasingly experiencing the challenges caused by the extreme climate variability, land degradation, low incomes and weak policy support making them extremely vulnerable to climate change induced risks. Dismal adaptive capacity, virtual absence of an enabling policy environment and the weak interface with the formal knowledge providers are the factors compelling such farmers to develop their own location specific practices for effective adaptation to such stressors. This paper examines how small-holder farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh (UP) are using the local knowledge for sustaining the rice yields in a multiple stress environment. Study was carried out with 45 key knowledge farmers selected randomly from 9 villages, i.e ., three each from three purposively selected districts (Azamgarh, Jaunpur and Gajipur) of eastern UP. Data were collected using intensive transect walk, participant observations, distant learning and informal interactions, and personal interviews using a structured questionnaire in combination with the soil testing results. Results indicated that farmers are experiencing reduced number of rainy days, extended summers and short winters than earlier. Some new insect-pests and weeds have emerged in the past two decades. Moderate to high soil sodicity (pH2 8.4-10.1), waterlogging in low-lying lands in canal commands and acute labour shortages due to increased migration to cities and employment opportunities under MGNREGA scheme have considerably increased the vulnerability of these farmers. Furthermore, weak policy support and the poor access to the recommended technologies seem to have further decreased their adaptive capacity as evident from very low rice yields (1.8-3.5 q ha1). As income from rice crop is a major source of livelihood to them, studied farmers are increasingly adopting the sanda method of double rice transplanting to enhance the resilience of the rice agro-ecosystems. In this method, farmers broadcast only about a fifth (6-8 kg ha-1) of the recommended seed rate (30-40 kg ha-1) in puddled fields around mid-May using tube well water. After about 25 days (i.e ., around 15th June), the seedlings are uprooted and transplanted in another field where they are grown for about 20 days (5-10 July). About 50-55 days old seedlings are then moved to the main fields. Rice crop grown using sanda technique withstands extended dry spells in the uplands and prolonged water inundation in the low-lying fields. Almost negligible incidence of pests and diseases ensures little or virtually no use of pesticides. Compared with the puddled transplanted rice, sanda method provides about 20-25% higher grain yield. This community-knowledge, which probably originated in the eastern parts of India, has gradually spread to the eastern UP via migrant labourers from Bihar and West Bengal. This method of rice growing represents a characteristic example of autonomous adaptation to alleviate the risks caused by multiple stressors. Notably, this method has now become a part of the agricultural contingency plan of the State Government. It is possible that sanda technique may be of immense use in rice-wheat system of north-western India where a multitude of problems including widespread land degradation, water scarcity, pest and disease outbreaks and declining crop yields have caused immense harm

Open well irrigation in arid parts of Rajasthan: Adaptation to multiple stressors affecting agricultural sustainability

Resource scarcity and exposure to multiple stressors have compelled the small-holder farmers world over to develop location-specific adaptation strategies to sustain their livelihoods; especially in risk-prone ecosystems. This paper attempts to understand two questions: (i) how agro-ecological knowledge of farmers of Pali district, Rajasthan, India is used to harvest the rainwater through open-wells to sustain the agricultural production, and (ii) how different stressors are impacting the socio-ecological resilience of these agro-ecosystems. To answer these questions, a study was carried out with 20 key informants from four purposively selected villages of Pali district. Data were collected through transect walk, soil and water sampling, focus group discussions, personal interviews, participant observations and telephonic discussions. Results indicated that rain water, open-well system and river water (Luni river at few places) constitute the main sources of water for sustaining crop and animal production. Over 85.0% of the studied farmers owned 1-4 open-wells (CV: 47.0%). On an average, 300 to 500 farmers obtained irrigation water from a single openwell to irrigate an average 2.72 ha (0.48-8.0 ha, with CV: 7.0%) of the crop land. During November to December, one open-well having 60-70 feet high watertable could supply water for about 15-18 hours which reduces to 6-8 hours during February-March. The major crops grown using open-well water are cumin, wheat, mustard and fenugreek. At most of the locations, 25-30% of such wells have gone dry, and, at some places, as much as 80% of the open-wells (e.g., in Rampura, Rohat block) are now dry. In such wells, the remaining water is too saline (ECiw ~5.5-13.2) for irrigation. Reduced number of rainy days as well as restricted seepage from the drying Luni river seem to have accentuated the salinity problem. The water storage in the river bed has considerably reduced over time resulting in reduced seepage to the adjacent agricultural lands. These hydrological changes have adversely affected the soil health with far reaching consequences for water and nutrient availability and sustainability of the local cropping systems. Many locally adapted landraces in crops such as cumin and chilli are on the verge of extinction, while area under wheat has decreased. Farmers’ dependence on external sources for seeds and other vital inputs has also increased. In a nutshell, rapidly declining watertable and the concurrent increase in salinity, likely to be aggravated by climate variability, may attain alarming proportions in the coming period. In order to overcome this situation, a multipronged, community-based approach with polycentric policy support is urgently required to revive the open-wells which were once the lifeline of these rural communities in Pali district of Rajasthan

Conservation of soil moisture to earn cash: An autonomous and opportunistic agro-ecological adaptation in semi-arid climate of Rajasthan, India

Autonomous adaptation is a strategy developed and used by the material resource-poor farmers (MRP) in resource scarce regions of the world. This paper attempts to understand how local farmers experience multiple stressors and respond to them through local knowledge and practices. A study was carried out with a total of 20 key informants from four purposively selected villages lying in Hemawas check dam area of Pali district, Rajasthan, India. Data were collected using transect walk, focus group discussions, personal interviews, participant observations and telephonic discussions. Results indicated that an overwhelming majority (˃84.0%) of the farmers were experiencing delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon, and erratic rainfall. Respondents believed that in addition to climate variability, socio-political changes are also adversely impacting their livelihoods. In response to the growing water scarcity, these farmers increasingly utilize the residual soil moisture in fields lying in the Hemawas dam catchment to grow diverse crops for sustaining their livelihoods. The lands where farmers earlier cultivated wheat, barley, chickpea and mustard crops, now suffer from water scarcity and salinity, are being increasingly diverted to grow muskmelon which is seen as an opportunistic adaptation with high profit realizations. It emerged during study that anomalies in atmospheric temperature and terminal heat during February-March have negatively impacted the Rabi crops. Muskmelon cultivation is gathering momentum in such marginal soils as it adapts well to the adverse conditions, requires the least use of external inputs and provides handsome returns in a short span of about 3 months. In the uplands adjacent to the dam, farmers still raise late sown varieties of barley and wheat crops (sowing is done even up to second week of January). When water recedes from the catchment area, locally available muskmelon seeds are manually sown in ploughed fields during the last week of February. Prior to sowing, the seeds are immersed in the lukewarm water followed by wrapping in moist jute bags. Wrapped seeds are kept overnight for hastening the germination. The farmers level the fields when the seedlings have attained an age of 2-3 weeks to retain the water for extended period of time. This practice also lowers the incidence of insect-pests. Easy market access through muskmelon contractors also makes it a lucrative adaptation activity. During the entire duration of muskmelon crop (March to May), there is minimal competition with other agricultural activities such that farmers are able to concentrate on raising a profitable crop. Muskmelon cultivation in the studied villages is essentially a women-dependent and women-empowering activity as they are almost exclusively responsible for raising and nurturing the crop for monetary benefits. This study provides an insight about how formal and informal knowledge can be hybridized to co-produce more robust adaptation strategies to convert stressors into opportunity