The evolution of language: a comparative review

For many years the evolution of language has been seen as a disreputable topic, mired in fanciful "just so stories" about language origins. However, in the last decade a new synthesis of modern linguistics, cognitive neuroscience and neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory has begun to make important contributions to our understanding of the biology and evolution of language. I review some of this recent progress, focusing on the value of the comparative method, which uses data from animal species to draw inferences about language evolution. Discussing speech first, I show how data concerning a wide variety of species, from monkeys to birds, can increase our understanding of the anatomical and neural mechanisms underlying human spoken language, and how bird and whale song provide insights into the ultimate evolutionary function of language. I discuss the ‘‘descended larynx’ ’ of humans, a peculiar adaptation for speech that has received much attention in the past, which despite earlier claims is not uniquely human. Then I will turn to the neural mechanisms underlying spoken language, pointing out the difficulties animals apparently experience in perceiving hierarchical structure in sounds, and stressing the importance of vocal imitation in the evolution of a spoken language. Turning to ultimate function, I suggest that communication among kin (especially between parents and offspring) played a crucial but neglected role in driving language evolution. Finally, I briefly discuss phylogeny, discussing hypotheses that offer plausible routes to human language from a non-linguistic chimp-like ancestor. I conclude that comparative data from living animals will be key to developing a richer, more interdisciplinary understanding of our most distinctively human trait: language

Surface gamma-ray survey of SX Tank Farm

Measurements made over the surface of the SX Tank Farm at Hanford show Cs 137 to be the only significant gamma ray emitting contaminant. A high-purity germanium detector collected the data in the surface survey. Most of the detected radiation originated from specific above ground objects, such as pipes and vents. One area of increased radiation in the north section of the tank farm between tanks SX-102 and SX-105, was apparently due to contamination of the soil by Cs 137. An area of interest near tanks SX-108, SX-111, and SX-112, below which borehole logs has indicated deep Cs 137 contamination, also showed Cs 137 at the surface, but the signal originated mainly from surface objects rather than from contaminated soils. A significant result of the surface survey is the understanding that surface objects with contamination can affect the signal observed by borehole logging tools as they reach the ground surface

Feasibility study for transuranic nuclide measurement on long-length contaminated equipment using neutron detection

The feasibility of measuring the transuranic (TRU) nuclide content of equipment removed from Hanford`s high-level radioactive-waste tanks has been established for components heavier than about 30 kg/m (20 lbs/ft). This conclusion has been reached based on experience with the TRU assay of waste burial boxes, planned improvements to the assay equipment design and assay methodology, and experimental investigation of neutron detector performance in high gamma-ray fields. The experiments indicate that the neutron detectors presently used with Pacific Northwest Laboratory`s box scanner perform correctly in gamma-ray exposure rates of at least 3 R/h. The design of equipment proposed for measuring TRU content incorporates multiple, BF{sub 3}-gas-filled neutron counters in a configuration that is approximately 0.5 m wide and 2 m long, with polyethylene to moderate high-energy neutrons down to thermal energy. Specially developed electrical systems are used to eliminate response to gamma-rays. Performance of the assay would require 10 to 14 hours of time during which close-range access is provided to the waste and its burial container. A standard neutron source, will be placed within the burial container (before inserting components) to allow calibration of the detector. Final calculation of the TRU contamination will utilize plausible conservative assumptions concerning the spatial, isotopic, and elemental distributions of any TRU present. For long-length equipment, the detector array collects data at various positions along the length of the equipment. Separate monitoring of the cosmic-ray-induced neutron background during the assay period will provide confidence that observed changes in counts at the equipment are not related to changing background. Background measurements using the burial container and equipment {open_quotes}skid{close_quotes} will allow compensation for neutrons that are created by cosmic-ray spallation within the burial container

Measurement of {sup 235}U content and flow of UF{sub 6} using delayed neutrons or gamma rays following induced fission

Feasibility experiments conducted at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory demonstrate that either delayed neutrons or energetic gamma rays from short-lived fission products can be used to monitor the blending of UF{sub 6} gas streams. A {sup 252}Cf neutron source was used to induce {sup 235}U fission in a sample, and delayed neutrons and gamma rays were measured after the sample moved {open_quotes}down-stream.{close_quotes} The experiments used a UO{sub 2} powder that was transported down the pipe to simulate the flowing UF{sub 6} gas. Computer modeling and analytic calculation extended the test results to a flowing UF{sub 6} gas system. Neutron or gamma-ray measurements made at two downstream positions can be used to indicate both the {sup 235}U content and UF{sub 6} flow rate. Both the neutron and gamma-ray techniques have the benefits of simplicity and long-term reliability, combined with adequate sensitivity for low-intrusion monitoring of the blending process. Alternatively, measuring the neutron emission rate from (a, n) reactions in the UF{sub 6} provides an approximate measure of the {sup 235}U content without using a neutron source to induce fission

Capillary optics for radiation focusing

Capillary lens technology may ultimately bring benefits to neutron and x-ray-based science like conventional lenses with visible light. Although the technology is not yet 10 years old, these lenses have already had a significant impact in engineering, science, and medicine. Capillary lenses are advantageous when it is desirable to increase the radiation flux at a location without regard to its angular divergence. PNNL has worked to improve the technology in several ways. A single, optimally tapered capillary was manufactured, which allows intensity gains of a factor of 270 for an initially parallel, incident x-ray beam. Feasibility of constructing neutron lenses using {sup 58}Ni (particularly effective at reflecting neutrons) has been explored. Three applications for capillary optics have been identified and studied: neutron telescope, Gandolphi x-ray diffractometry, and neutron radiotherapy. A brief guide is given for determining which potential applications are likely to be helped by capillary optics

In silico evolutionary developmental neurobiology and the origin of natural language

Abstract. It is justified to assume that part of our genetic endowment contributes to our language skills, yet it is impossible to tell at this moment exactly how genes affect the language faculty. We complement experimental biological studies by an in silico approach in that we simulate the evolution of neuronal networks under selection for language-related skills. At the heart of this project is the Evolutionary Neurogenetic Algorithm (ENGA) that is deliberately biomimetic. The design of the system was inspired by important biological phenomena such as brain ontogenesis, neuron morphologies, and indirect genetic encoding. Neuronal networks were selected and were allowed to reproduce as a function of their performance in the given task. The selected neuronal networks in all scenarios were able to solve the communication problem they had to face. The most striking feature of the model is that it works with highly indirect genetic encoding—just as brains do.