Contracts as Organizations

Empirical studies of contracts have become more common over the past decade, but the range of questions addressed by these studies is narrow, inspired primarily by economic theories that focus on the role of contracts in mitigating ex post opportunism. We contend that these economic theories do not adequately explain many commonly observed features of contracts, and we offer four organizational theories to supplement-and in some instances, perhaps, challenge-the dominant economic accounts. The purpose of this Article is threefold: first, to describe how theoretical perspectives on contracting have motivated empirical work on contracts; second, to highlight the dominant role of economic theories in framing empirical work on contracts; and third, to enrich the empirical study of contracts through application of four organizational theories: resource theory, learning theory, identity theory, and institutional theory. Outside economics literature, empirical studies of contracts are rare. Even management scholars and sociologists who generate organizational theories largely ignore contracts. Nevertheless, we assert that these organizational theories provide new lenses through which to view contracts and help us understand their multiple purposes

Contracts as Organizations

Empirical studies of contracts have become more common over the past decade, but the range of questions addressed by these studies is narrow, inspired primarily by economic theories that focus on the role of contracts in mitigating ex post opportunism. We contend that these economic theories do not adequately explain many commonly observed features of contracts, and we offer four organizational theories to supplement-and in some instances, perhaps, challenge-the dominant economic accounts. The purpose of this Article is threefold: first, to describe how theoretical perspectives on contracting have motivated empirical work on contracts; second, to highlight the dominant role of economic theories in framing empirical work on contracts; and third, to enrich the empirical study of contracts through application of four organizational theories: resource theory, learning theory, identity theory, and institutional theory. Outside economics literature, empirical studies of contracts are rare. Even management scholars and sociologists who generate organizational theories largely ignore contracts. Nevertheless, we assert that these organizational theories provide new lenses through which to view contracts and help us understand their multiple purposes

Metabolic Syndrome Impairs Cerebrovascular Tone and Behaviour in Obese Zucker Rats

Metabolic syndrome is associated with cerebrovascular disease and cognitive impairment. We determined vascular reactivity in middle cerebral arteries (MCA), and performed cognitive testing using an operant conditioning chamber (OCC) and Morris Water Maze (MWM). Male obese Zucker rats (OZR) were used to test the hypothesis that the pro-inflammatory environment present in the OZR impairs cerebrovascular tone regulation and is associated with neuroinflammation of the white matter and cognitive impairment. Dilation of MCA following challenge with acetylcholine was blunted, whereas constrictor responses were enhanced. Learning was impaired in the MWM and a shift in swim strategy towards increased allocentric navigation was observed. Few impairments were detected in the OCC tests or when white matter regions were examined for markers of neuroinflammation. These results suggest that the reactivity of MCA in OZR is altered with MetS, and that this impairment is associated mild cognitive dysfunction in the absence of white matter inflammation

College students and cyberbullying: how social media use affects social anxiety and social comparison

Cyberbullying is defined as aggression intending to inflict harm on others by electronic communication technologies. Cyberbullying has become more common as social media has grown and is accompanied by negative mental health consequences. Research on cyberbullying and mental health in adolescents suggests cyberbullying victimization moderates the relationship between social comparison and social anxiety, but little is known about this phenomenon in college students. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the relationship between cyberbullying, social anxiety, and social comparison amongst college students. A convenience sample of 486 undergraduate students from southern Texas and northern Ohio completed a PyschData survey that assessed social anxiety, social comparison, experiences with be a cyberbullying victim, perpetrator, or both. We found that social anxiety was associated with cyberbullying victimization and perpetration; however, social comparison was not. Cyberbullying victimization was not a moderator between social comparison and anxiety, suggesting that unlike adolescence, college students\u27 experiences with these constructs may be unique to their developmental level

Hemodynamics during the 10-minute NASA Lean Test: evidence of circulatory decompensation in a subset of ME/CFS patients.

BACKGROUND: Lightheadedness, fatigue, weakness, heart palpitations, cognitive dysfunction, muscle pain, and exercise intolerance are some of the symptoms of orthostatic intolerance (OI). There is substantial comorbidity of OI in ME/CFS (Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome). The 10-minute NASA Lean Test (NLT) is a simple, point-of-care method that can aid ME/CFS diagnosis and guide management and treatment of OI. The objective of this study was to understand the hemodynamic changes that occur in ME/CFS patients during the 10-minute NLT. METHODS: A total of 150 ME/CFS patients and 75 age, gender and race matched healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled. We recruited 75 ME/CFS patients who had been sick for less than 4 years (\u3c 4 ME/CFS) and 75 ME/CFS patients sick for more than 10 years (\u3e 10 ME/CFS). The 10-minute NLT involves measurement of blood pressure and heart rate while resting supine and every minute for 10 min while standing with shoulder-blades on the wall for a relaxed stance. Spontaneously reported symptoms are recorded during the test. ANOVA and regression analysis were used to test for differences and relationships in hemodynamics, symptoms and upright activity between groups. RESULTS: At least 5 min of the 10-minute NLT were required to detect hemodynamic changes. The \u3c 4 ME/CFS group had significantly higher heart rate and abnormally narrowed pulse pressure compared to \u3e 10 ME/CFS and HCs. The \u3c 4 ME/CFS group experienced significantly more OI symptoms compared to \u3e 10 ME/CFS and HCs. The circulatory decompensation observed in the \u3c 4 ME/CFS group was not related to age or medication use. CONCLUSIONS: Circulatory decompensation characterized by increased heart rate and abnormally narrow pulse pressure was identified in a subgroup of ME/CFS patients who have been sick for \u3c 4 years. This suggests inadequate ventricular filling from low venous pressure. The 10-minute NLT can be used to diagnose and treat the circulatory decompensation in this newly recognized subgroup of ME/CFS patients. The \u3e 10 ME/CFS group had less pronounced hemodynamic changes during the NLT possibly from adaptation and compensation that occurs over time. The 10-minute NLT is a simple and clinically useful point-of-care method that can be used for early diagnosis of ME/CFS and help guide OI treatment

Permeability-enhancing effects of three laurate-disaccharide monoesters across isolated rat intestinal mucosae

Laurate (C12)-sucrose esters are established intestinal epithelial permeation enhancers (PEs) with potential for use in oral delivery. Most studies have examined blends of ester rather than specific monoesters, with little variation on the sugar moiety. To investigate the influence of varying the sugar moiety on monoester performance, we compared three monoesters: C12-sucrose, C12-lactose, and C12-trehalose. The assays were: critical micellar concentration (CMC) in Krebs-Henseleit buffer, MTS and lactate dehydrogenase assays in Caco-2 cells, transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) of [14C] mannitol across isolated rat intestinal mucosae, and tissue histology. For CMC, the rank order was C12-trehalose (0.21 mM) < C12-sucrose (0.34 mM) < C12-lactose (0.43 mM). Exposure to Caco-2 cells for 120 min produced TC50 values in the MTS assay from 0.1 to 0.4 mM. Each ester produced a concentration-dependent decrease in TEER across rat mucosae with 80% reduction seen with 8 mM in 5 min, but C12-trehalose was less potent. C12-sucrose and C12-lactose increased the Papp of [14C] mannitol across mucosae with similar potency and efficacy, whereas C12-trehalose was not as potent or efficacious, even though it still increased flux. In the presence of the three esters, gross intestinal histology was unaffected except at 8 mM for C12-sucrose and C12-lactose. In conclusion, the three esters enhanced permeability likely via tight junction modulation in rat intestinal tissue. C12-trehalose was not quite as efficacious, but neither did it damage tissue to the same extent. All three can be considered as potential PEs to be included in oral formulations

Validity and Reliability of Physiological Data in Applied Settings Measured by Wearable Technology: A Rapid Systematic Review

The purpose of this review was to evaluate the current state of the literature and to identify the types of study designs, wearable devices, statistical tests, and exercise modes used in validation and reliability studies conducted in applied settings/outdoor environments. This was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. We identified nine articles that fit our inclusion criteria, eight of which tested for validity and one tested for reliability. The studies tested 28 different devices with exercise modalities of running, walking, cycling, and hiking. While there were no universally common analytical techniques used to measure accuracy or validity, correlative measures were used in 88% of studies, mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) in 75%, and Bland–Altman plots in 63%. Intra-class correlation was used to determine reliability. There were not any universally common thresholds to determine validity, however, of the studies that used MAPE and correlation, there were only five devices that had a MAPE of... (see full abstract in article)

Fluorescently tagged star polymers by living radical polymerisation for mucoadhesion and bioadhesion

The synthesis of 3-, 5- and 8-arm dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate star polymers are reported, final Mn (PDI) = 12.2 K (1.09), 18.9K (1.10) and 38.4 K (1.11), respectively. The synthesis of 3-arm methyl methacrylate and dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate block co-polymer stars is also described. Living polymerisation occurred in all cases providing well defined stars with predictable molecular weights and narrow polydispersity. A fluorescent tag, 2-(8-methacryloyloy-3,6-dioxaoctyl)thioxantheno[2,1,9-dej]isoquinoline-1,3-dione, derived from a commercially available pigment, was incorporated into the star polymers. The fluorescence spectra of the polymers prepared were recorded over a range of pH and the peak emission frequency and intensity have been reported, λex = 462 nm. All of the multi-arm polymers exhibit fluorescence across a broad pH range with maximum emission at pH 4. A 3-arm star polymer has been demonstrated to show good bioadhesion in rat tissue. A reduced adhesion in epithelial tissues not covered by a viscoelastic mucus gel indicates an increased tendency for mucoadhesion over bioadhesion.We thank Clariant for the kind donation of the hostasol precursor and Genzyme for part funding this work. D.M. Haddleton would also like to thank Professor John Ebdon for all of his encouragement and support throughout his academic career

Great Successes and Great Failures: The Impact of Project Leader Status on Project Performance and Performance Extremeness

Research supporting the Matthew effect demonstrates that high-status actors experience performance benefits due to increased recognition of their work and greater opportunities and resources, but recent research also indicates that high-status actors face a greater risk of negative performance evaluations. In this paper, we seek to contribute to the status literature by reconciling these findings and ask: To what extent does status influence heterogeneity in performance evaluations? We explore how project leader status affects the performance of innovation projects in the video game industry. We hypothesize that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between project leader status and project performance, and a positive relationship between project leader status and performance extremeness (i.e., performance variation). In order to test our hypotheses, we analysed the performance of video game projects and computed the status of project leaders by applying a project affiliation social network analysis. We find that an intermediate level of status – neither too much nor too little – is positively associated with average project performance. We also reveal more extreme performance effects for high-status leaders: While some achieve superior project performance, others experience significant project failures. We, therefore, provide important theoretical and practical insights regarding how status affects the implementation of innovations. We also discuss the implications of these findings for the literature on middle-status conformity

Functional Coupling of Ryanodine Receptors to KCa Channels in Smooth Muscle Cells from Rat Cerebral Arteries

The relationship between Ca2+ release (“Ca2+ sparks”) through ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and KCa channels was examined in smooth muscle cells from rat cerebral arteries. Whole cell potassium currents at physiological membrane potentials (−40 mV) and intracellular Ca2+ were measured simultaneously, using the perforated patch clamp technique and a laser two-dimensional (x–y) scanning confocal microscope and the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator, fluo-3. Virtually all (96%) detectable Ca2+ sparks were associated with the activation of a spontaneous transient outward current (STOC) through KCa channels. A small number of sparks (5 of 128) were associated with currents smaller than 6 pA (mean amplitude, 4.7 pA, at −40 mV). Approximately 41% of STOCs occurred without a detectable Ca2+ spark. The amplitudes of the Ca2+ sparks correlated with the amplitudes of the STOCs (regression coefficient 0.8; P < 0.05). The half time of decay of Ca2+ sparks (56 ms) was longer than the associated STOCs (9 ms). The mean amplitude of the STOCs, which were associated with Ca2+ sparks, was 33 pA at −40 mV. The mean amplitude of the “sparkless” STOCs was smaller, 16 pA. The very significant increase in KCa channel open probability (>104-fold) during a Ca2+ spark is consistent with local Ca2+ during a spark being in the order of 1–100 μM. Therefore, the increase in fractional fluorescence (F/Fo) measured during a Ca2+ spark (mean 2.04 F/Fo or ∼310 nM Ca2+) appears to significantly underestimate the local Ca2+ that activates KCa channels. These results indicate that the majority of ryanodine receptors that cause Ca2+ sparks are functionally coupled to KCa channels in the surface membrane, providing direct support for the idea that Ca2+ sparks cause STOCs