Athletes' perceptions of coaching effectiveness and athlete-related outcomes in rugby union: An investigation based on the coaching efficacy model

This study examined the relationships between athletes' perceptions of coaching effectiveness, based on the coaching efficacy model, and their effort, commitment, enjoyment, self-efficacy, and prosocial and antisocial behavior in rugby union. Participants were 166 adult male rugby-union players (M age = 26.5, SD = 8.5 years), who completed questionnaires measuring their perceptions of four dimensions of coaching effectiveness as well as their effort, commitment, enjoyment, self-efficacy, and prosocial and antisocial behavior. Regression analyses, controlling for rugby experience, revealed that athletes' perceptions of motivation effectiveness predicted effort, commitment, and enjoyment. Further, perceptions of technique effectiveness predicted self-efficacy, while perceptions of character-building effectiveness predicted prosocial behavior. None of the perceived coaching effectiveness dimensions were related to antisocial behavior. In conclusion, athletes' evaluations of their coach's ability to motivate, provide instruction, and instill an attitude of fair play in his athletes have important implications for the variables measured in this study

Advancing leadership in sport: Time to 'actually' take the blinkers off?

In a recent article entitled Advancing Leadership in Sport: Time to Take off the Blinkers?’ Cruickshank and Collins presented what they deemed to be a critical analysis of extant leadership research in sport, attempting to establish a rationale for a greater emphasis on both the cognitive and ‘darker’ (i.e., socially undesirable) sides of leadership. The purpose of the present article is to challenge and clarify a number of misrepresentations in the arguments made in the foundation article, and to question some of the resultant recommendations made. Specifically, the present response will focus on Cruickshank and Collins’ (a) lack of specificity regarding the actual ‘dark’ traits they are apparently purporting to be effective leadership traits, (b) the dearth of theoretical and empirical support for their claims relating to the benefits of ‘dark’ leadership (c) misrepresentation of transformational leadership theory, (d) decision to ignore other relevant theoretical frameworks when presenting their arguments, and (e) apparent confirmation bias in the selective use of literature to support their arguments. Leadership research in sport may well benefit from new directions and methodological advancements and on this level we concur with the aims of Cruickshank and Collins’ article. However, we believe their misrepresentations and inappropriate recommendations do little to advance this area of research, and potentially serve to take it backwards not forwards

Development and initial validation of an indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity

An indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity was developed across three studies. In Study 1, the transformational leadership integrity implicit association test (TLI-IAT) was developed and tested with 65 leaders across heterogeneous organizational contexts. Study 2 involved 51 coaches from 18 sports. Results from Studies 1 and 2 supported the construct validity of the instrument, providing evidence of the instrument's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 involved 32 coaches and 133 players from six sports. Findings supported the criterion validity of the measure, providing evidence for the instrument's predictive validity. In sum, evidence is presented that supports the TLI-IATs construct and criterion validity. As such, the present research has made significant advancements to the transformational leadership integrity literature and provides researchers with an indirect measure of automatic transformational leadership integrity self-attitudes

Empathic and Self-Regulatory Processes Governing Doping Behavior

Evidence associating doping behavior with moral disengagement (MD) has accumulated over recent years. However, to date, research examining links between MD and doping has not considered key theoretically grounded influences and outcomes of MD. As such, there is a need for quantitative research in relevant populations that purposefully examines the explanatory pathways through which MD is thought to operate. Toward this end, the current study examined a conceptually grounded model of doping behavior that incorporated empathy, doping self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), doping MD, anticipated guilt and self-reported doping/doping susceptibility. Participants were specifically recruited to represent four key physical-activity contexts and consisted of team- (n = 195) and individual- (n = 169) sport athletes and hardcore- (n = 125) and corporate- (n = 121) gym exercisers representing both genders (nmale = 371; nfemale = 239); self-reported lifetime prevalence of doping across the sample was 13.6%. Each participant completed questionnaires assessing the aforementioned variables. Structural equation modeling indicated strong support for all study hypotheses. Specifically, we established: (a) empathy and doping SRE negatively predicted reported doping; (b) the predictive effects of empathy and doping SRE on reported doping were mediated by doping MD and anticipated guilt; (c) doping MD positively predicted reported doping; (d) the predictive effects of doping MD on reported doping were partially mediated by anticipated guilt. Substituting self-reported doping for doping susceptibility, multisample analyses then demonstrated these predictive effects were largely invariant between males and females and across the four physical-activity contexts represented. These findings extend current knowledge on a number of levels, and in doing so aid our understanding of key psychosocial processes that may govern doping behavior across key physical-activity contexts

Development and validation of dependence and craving measures specific to athletes who use anabolic-androgenic steroids

Background: Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) dependence affects approximately 30% of people who use AAS. Presently, measures to assess and diagnose AAS dependence are adapted from scales specific to other forms of drug misuse (e.g., alcohol), containing issues with internal consistency and breadth of construct capture. Additionally, there are no measures available to assess AAS craving, which represents a potentially important coeval factor to AAS dependence. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and provide evidence of validity for measures of AAS dependence and AAS craving.Methods: Data were collected from male and female strength athletes who use AAS across two samples (nsample 1 = 206; nsample 2 = 224). Sample 1 completed the new measures alongside instruments assessing theoretically related constructs (Doping Moral Disengagement, Doping Self-Regulatory Efficacy Scale, craving items from the Wisconsin Smoking Withdrawal Scale, AAS adapted Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder 4th Edition), whereas Sample 2 completed the new instruments.Results: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) with Sample 1 data were used to finalize the item sets for both measures and determine the factorial structures of the AAS Dependence Scale (AASDS) and AAS Craving Scale (AASCS). The AASDS consists of 15-items across five first-order factors that are represented by one second-order factor. The AASCS consists of 16-items across four first-order factors that are represented by one second-order factor. Evidence supporting the concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity of scores obtained with both scales was provided through their associations with the theoretically related variables. CFA with the data from Sample 2 confirmed the factor structures for both scales.Conclusion: The AASDS and AASCS represent valid and reliable measures of AAS dependence and AAS craving for use in research with strength athletes who use AAS

Russian roulette with unlicensed fat-burner drug 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) : evidence from a multidisciplinary study of the internet, bodybuilding supplements and DNP users

BACKGROUND: 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) poses serious health-risks to humans. The aims of this three-stage multidisciplinary project were, for the first time, to assess the risks to the general public from fraudulent sale of or adulteration/contamination with DNP; and to investigate motives, reasons and risk-management among DNP-user bodybuilders and avid exercisers. METHODS: Using multiple search-engines and guidance for Internet research, online retailers and bodybuilding forums/blogs were systematically explored for availability of DNP, advice offered on DNP use and user profiles. Ninety-eight pre-workout and weight-loss supplements were purchased and analysed for DNP using liquid-chromatography-mass-spectrometry. Psychosocial variables were captured in an international sample of 35 DNP users (26.06 ± 6.10 years, 94.3 % male) with an anonymous, semi-qualitative self-reported survey. RESULTS: Although an industrial chemical, evidence from the Internet showed that DNP is sold 'as is', in capsules or tablets to suit human consumption, and is used 'uncut'. Analytical results confirmed that DNP is not on the supplement market disguised under fictitious supplement names, but infrequently was present as contaminant in some supplements (14/98) at low concentration (<100mcg/kg). Users make conscious and 'informed' decisions about DNP; are well-prepared for the side-effects and show nonchalant attitude toward self-experimentation with DNP. Steps are often taken to ensure that DNP is genuine. Personal experience with performance- and appearance enhancing substances appears to be a gateway to DNP. Advice on DNP and experiences are shared online. The significant discrepancy between the normative perception and the actual visibility suggests that DNP use is-contrary to the Internet accounts-a highly concealed and lonesome activity in real life. Positive experiences with the expected weight-loss prevail over the negative experiences from side effects (all but two users considered using DNP again) and help with using DNP safely is considered preferable over scare-tactics. CONCLUSION: Legislation banning DNP sale for human consumption protects the general public but DNP is sold 'as is' and used 'uncut' by determined users who are not dissuaded from experimenting with DNP based on health threats. Further research with stakeholders' active participation is imperative for targeted, proactive public health policies and harm-reduction measures for DNP, and other illicit supplements

Linking Narcissism, Motivation and Doping Attitudes in Sport: A Multilevel Investigation Involving Coaches and Athletes

Research on coaching (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2009) has shown that coaches can display controlling behaviors that have detrimental effects on athletes' basic psychological needs and quality of sport experiences. The current study extends this literature by considering coach narcissism as a potential antecedent of coaches' controlling behaviors. Further, the study tests a model linking coaches' (n = 59) own reports of narcissistic tendencies with athletes' (n = 493) perceptions of coach controlling behaviors, experiences of need frustration, and attitudes toward doping. Multilevel path analysis revealed that coach narcissism was directly and positively associated with athletes' perceptions of controlling behaviors, and was indirectly and positively associated with athletes' reports of needs frustration. Additionally, athletes' perceptions of coach behaviors were positively associated-directly and indirectly-with attitudes toward doping. The findings advance understanding of controlling coach behaviors, their potential antecedents, and their associations with athletes' attitudes toward doping

The meaning of "clean" in anti-doping education and decision making : moving toward integrity and conceptual clarity

With the World Anti-Doping Agency's International Standard for Education (ISE) coming into effect in 2021, the clean-sport movement is at a pivotal stage. Through this conceptual paper we juxtapose the sector-wide anti-doping education as set out in the ISE on the decision-making process at the individual level. We discuss three critical issues for the clean-sport movement. First, we make the case for doping being a “wicked” problem and outline the possible implications of this for prevention and detection. Second, we consider why we need to address regulative, normative, and cognitive components of clean sport if we are to maximize its legitimacy. Third, we critically expose the fluidity with which clean sport is defined, and the implications of defining clean sport in substance- vs. rule-based terms, which, respectively, lead to theorizing clean sport as “drug-free” vs. “cheating-free” sport. Finally, we consider the role and key components of anti-doping education and how the relevance of certain components may be dependent on the way clean sport is defined. Conceptualizing doping as a sport integrity issue, we move away from the archaic and delimiting view of clean sport as drug-free sport and conclude with recommendations on how to reconcile values-based education, awareness raising, information provision and anti-doping education within the broader scope of integrity, to support informed decision making and personal agency. To connect anti-doping education to individual-level decision making, we recommend a staggered approach in which specific education content is linked to different influences in the decision-making process, to different stages of athlete development, and to different educational goals. Emphasizing and encouraging sensemaking in anti-doping decision making offers a pragmatic approach for anti-doping education. Conceptual clarity and precise mapping of the educational goal, content, and delivery is vital for valid and meaningful evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-doping education

Exploring the relationship between mindset and psychological factors linked to doping

Mindset refers to the way in which one attributes his or her abilities and traits as either ‘fixed’ (e.g., immutable), ‘growth’ (e.g., highly malleable), or somewhere in between. It is possible that mindset may be related to psychological factors linked to doping – such as doping moral disengagement (MD) and doping self-regulatory efficacy (SRE) – though no research as yet has confirmed this. In the present study, 322 student-athletes completed a questionnaire pack measuring mindset and various psychological factors linked to doping. Structural equation modeling provided strong support for all study hypotheses. Specifically, we established: (a) mindset positively predicted doping SRE, (b) mindset negatively predicted doping MD, (c) doping MD positively predicted susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping, (d) doping MD negatively predicted anticipated guilt, (e) anticipated guilt negatively predicted susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping. In addition, significant negative correlations were found between MSA and doping moral disengagement (r = -.19, p &lt; .01), MSA and susceptibility to inadvertent doping (r = -.11, p &lt; .01), MMC and moral disengagement (r = -.12, p &lt; .05), and MMC and susceptibility to inadvertent doping (r = -.13, p &lt; .05). A significant positive correlation was found between MSA and doping SRE (r = .23, p &lt; .01). Implications of the findings include the potential for early identification of athletes at risk of doping based on their mindset. Future research should look to explore the effectiveness of mindset interventions on reducing transgressive doping attitudes and behaviours