Uncertainty Modulates the Effect of Transcranial Stimulation Over the Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex on Decision-Making Under Threat

Threat is a strategy that can be used to impact decision-making processes in bargaining. Abundant evidence suggests that credible threat and incredible threat both influence the obeisance of others. However, it is not clear whether the decision-making processes under credible threat and incredible threat during bargaining involve differential neurocognitive mechanisms. Here, we employed cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to deactivate the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) to address this question while subjects allocated and reported the subjective probability of future rejection under incredible threat and credible threat. We found that application of cathodal tDCS over the rDLPFC decreased the proposer’s subjective inference of probability of rejection and the offer to the responder under incredible threat. Conversely, the same stimulation did not lead to a significant difference compared to the sham group in subjective probability and offer under credible threat. These results suggested that decision-making processes under the two types of threat during bargaining were associated with different neurocognitive substrates, because the punishment for non-compliance was uncertain under incredible threat, whereas it was certain under credible threat. We decreased activity in the rDLPFC, which is involved in decision-making processes related to bargaining under incredible threats, and observed significantly impacted behavior. The differential neurocognitive bases of subjective probability of rejection under incredible threat and credible threat resulted in different tDCS effects

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Right Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Changes a priori Normative Beliefs in Voluntary Cooperation

A priori normative beliefs, the precondition of social norm compliance that reflects culture and values, are considered unique to human social behavior. Previous studies related to the ultimatum game revealed that right lateral prefrontal cortex (rLPFC) has no stimulation effects on normative beliefs. However, no research has focused on the effects of a priori belief on the rLPFC in voluntary cooperation attached to the public good (PG) game. In this study, we used a linear asymmetric PG to confirm the influence of the rLPFC on a priori normative beliefs without threats of external punishment through transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Participants engaged via computer terminals in groups of four (i.e., two high-endowment players with 35G$and two low-endowment players with 23G$). They were anonymous and had no communication during the entire process. They were randomly assigned to receive 15 min of either anodal, cathodal, or sham stimulation and then asked to answer questions concerning a priori normative beliefs (norm.belief and pg.belief). Results suggested that anodal/cathodal tDCS significantly (P < 0.001) shifted the participants’ a priori normative beliefs in opposite directions compared to the shift in the sham group. In addition, different identities exhibited varying degrees of change (28.80–54.43%). These outcomes provide neural evidence of the rLPFC mechanism’s effect on the normative beliefs in voluntary cooperation based on the PG framework

Neural Dynamics of Processing Probability Weight and Monetary Magnitude in the Evaluation of a Risky Reward

Risky decision-making involves risky reward valuation, choice, and feedback processes. However, the temporal dynamics of risky reward processing are not well understood. Using event-related brain potential, we investigated the neural correlates of probability weight and money magnitude in the evaluation of a risky reward. In this study, each risky choice consisted of two risky options, which were presented serially to separate decision-making and option evaluation processes. The early P200 component reflected the process of probability weight, not money magnitude. The medial frontal negativity (MFN) reflected both probability weight and money magnitude processes. The late positive potential (LPP) only reflected the process of probability weight. These results demonstrate distinct temporal dynamics for probability weight and money magnitude processes when evaluating a risky outcome, providing a better understanding of the possible mechanism underlying risky reward processing

The Role of Reward in Cooperation-Enhancing and Welfare-Improving Under Imperfect information: Theory and Evidence

Although previous literature demonstrates that punishment is more efficient and stable than reward, in our daily life, numerous kinds of rewards permeate. One possible explanation for widely use of reward institution in practice is that it’s an efficient and satisfactory way to enhance cooperation and welfare in a social dilemma situation even the contribution is hardly evaluated accurately. Nevertheless, this explanation lacks support from empirical evidence. Our study aims to examine whether the institution with reward option is an efficient and satisfactory way to solve social dilemma problems under imperfect information conditions. We show that reward institutions sustain higher cooperation levels and let participants get more welfare under imperfect information conditions. Furthermore, we find most participants to have a tendency to favor reward institutions, even when the information is highly noisy. Our study sheds light on the superiority of reward institutions over punishment institutions in a realistic world

Data from the research of Internal cost of spontaneous deception revealed by ERPs and EEG spectral perturbations

Abundant literature has studied the behavioral and neural correlates of deception, but little research has focused on the internal cost of spontaneous deception. In the present study, the event-related potential and event-related spectral perturbations techniques were used to measure the internal cost of spontaneous deception by having participants perform a sender–receiver task in which they decided whether to send deceptive messages to increase their payoff from the task. EEG data were recorded continuously with a 40-channel NuAmps DC amplifier (Compumedics Neuroscan, Inc., Charlotte, NC, USA). This dataset contains the data of deception rate, reaction time, socially appropriate rating, amplitude of RewP, grand amplitude of PCA-RewP, average power of delta, theta and beta bands

Efficient Active Oxygen Free Radical Generated in Tumor Cell by Loading-(HCONH2)·H2O2 Delivery Nanosystem with Soft-X-ray Radiotherapy

Tumor hypoxia is known to result in radiotherapy resistance and traditional radiotherapy using super-hard X-ray irradiation can cause considerable damage to normal tissue. Therefore, formamide peroxide (FPO) with high reactive oxygen content was employed to enhance the oxygen concentration in tumor cells and increase the radio-sensitivity of low-energy soft-X-ray. To improve stability of FPO, FPO is encapsulated into polyacrylic acid (PAA)-coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (FPO@HMSNs-PAA). On account of the pH-responsiveness of PAA, FPO@HMSNs-PAA will release more FPO in simulated acidic tumor microenvironment (pH 6.50) and subcellular endosomes (pH 5.0) than in simulated normal tissue media (pH 7.40). When exposed to soft-X-ray irradiation, the released FPO decomposes into oxygen and the generated oxygen further formed many reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to significant tumor cell death. The ROS-mediated cytotoxicity of FPO@HMSNs-PAA was confirmed by ROS-induced green fluorescence in tumor cells. The presented FPO delivery system with soft-X-ray irradiation paves a way for developing the next opportunities of radiotherapy toward efficient tumor prognosis

The Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Wildfires across Australia and Their Connections to Extreme Climate Based on a Combined Hydrological Drought Index

With the frequent occurrence of extreme climates around the world, the frequency of regional wildfires is also on the rise, which poses a serious threat to the safety of human life, property, and regional ecosystems. To investigate the role of extreme climates in the occurrence and spread of wildfires, we combined precipitation, evapotranspiration, soil moisture (SM), maximum temperature (MT), relative humidity, plant canopy water, vapor pressure deficit, and a combined hydrological drought index based on six Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and its follow-on (GRACE-FO) products to study the relationship between climate change and wildfires across Australia between 2003 and 2020. The results show that Australia’s wildfires are mainly concentrated in the northern region, with a small number being distributed along the southeastern coast. The high burned months are September (2.5941 × 106 ha), October (4.9939 × 106 ha), and November (3.8781 × 106 ha), while the years with a larger burned area are 2011 (79.95 × 106 ha) and 2012 (78.33 × 106 ha) during the study period. On a seasonal scale, the terrestrial water storage change and the hydrometeorological factors have the strong correlations with burned area, while for only the drought index, SM and MT are strongly related to burned area on an interannual scale. By comparing the data between the high burned and normal years, the impact of droughts on wildfires is achieved through two aspects: (1) the creation of a dry atmospheric environment, and (2) the accumulation of natural combustibles. Extreme climates affect wildfires through the occurrence of droughts. Among them, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the greatest impact on drought in Australia, followed by the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole (correlation coefficients are −0.33, −0.31, and −0.23, respectively), but there is little difference among the three. The proposed hydrological drought index in our study has the potential to provide an early warning of regional wildfires. Our results have a certain reference significance for comprehensively understanding the impact mechanism of extreme climates on regional wildfires and for establishing an early warning system for regional wildfires

Spatiotemporal Variation Characteristics of Droughts and Their Connection to Climate Variability and Human Activity in the Pearl River Basin, South China

Droughts have damaging impacts on human society and ecological environments. Therefore, studying the impacts of climate variability and human activity on droughts has very important scientific value and social significance in order to understand drought warnings and weaken the adverse impacts of droughts. In this study, we used a combined drought index based on five Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and GRACE Follow-On solutions to characterize droughts in the Pearl River basin (PRB) and its sub-basins during 2003 and 2020. Then, we accurately quantified the impact of climate variability and human activity on droughts in the PRB and seven sub-basins by combining the hydrometeorological climate index and in situ human activity data. The results show that 14 droughts were identified in the PRB, particularly the North River basin with the most drought months (52.78%). The El Niño-Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole were found to have important impacts on droughts in the PRB. They affect the operation of the atmospheric circulation, as well as the East Asia summer monsoon, resulting in a decrease in precipitation in the PRB. This impact shows a significant east–west difference on the spatial scale. The middle and upper reaches of the PRB were found to be dominated by SM, while the lower reaches were found to be dominated by GW. Human activity was found to mainly exacerbate droughts in the PRB, but also plays a significant role in reducing peak magnitude. The sub-basins with a higher proportion of total water consumption experienced more droughts (more than 11), and vice versa. The Pearl River Delta showed the highest drought intensification. Reservoir storage significantly reduces the drought peak and severity, but the impact effect depends on its application and balance with the total water consumption. Our study provides a reference for analyzing the drought characteristics, causes, and impacts of sub-basins on a global scale