Characterization of microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae secreted effector proteins that manipulate its host plant, Silene latifolia.

The smut fungal species Microbotryum lychnidis-dioicae is an obligate phytopathogen colonizing the plant host, Silene latifolia. A significant feature of M. lychnidis-dioicae infection is that the fungus can replace pollen on the anthers of susceptible host plants with fungal teliospores, thus earning the fungus the name: anther smut disease of flowers. The fungus synthesizes and secretes effector proteins into the cells of the plant host during infection, and the protein-protein interactions may interfere with and modify metabolism, plant development, and gene expression of the host to allow fungal colonization. Two potential fungal effector proteins, MVLG_06175 and MVLG_05122, were identified by genome sequence analysis and prior expression studies. The yeast-two hybrid screening was used to identify their potential plant protein interactors. A potential plant protein interacting with MVLG_06175 was identified as CASP-like protein 2C1 (CASPL2C1), while those interacting with MVLG_05122 were identified as COP9 signalosome subunit 5a and 5b (CSN5a/5b). CASPL2C1 might facilitate the polymerization of the Casparian strip by forming a protein scaffold at the endodermal cells where lignin deposits. CSN5a/5b could adjust the rate of protein ubiquitination and degradation by interacting with Cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligases (CRLs). CRLs is a large enzyme family labelling proteins with ubiquitin, and these proteins are subsequently recognized and degraded by the 26S proteasome. MVLG_06175 and MVLG_05122 were tagged by generating fusion proteins with mCherry or cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), respectively, and then transformed into the model host plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Images taken from a confocal microscopy showed that fluorescence signals of MVLG_06175 form clustered granules or punctate regions at the tips of trichomes on leaves and in root caps, while those of MVLG_05122 formed a clear band structure at the base of leaf trichomes. These results indicate that the fungal MVLG_06175 might affect the formation of the Casparian strip in the roots and the synthesis of phytochemicals in the trichomes of host plants, and MVLG_05122 might modify the development of trichomes. There were no significant phenotype changes in A. thaliana transformed with MVLG_05122, while A. thaliana transformed with MVLG_06175 showed statistically smaller rosette diameter and leaf quantity. It is significant that both effector proteins located to the trichomes on leaves of model transgenic plants. Trichomes are defensive structures of plants protecting against both biotic and abiotic stresses. These findings suggested that M. lychnidis-dioicae might apply the two effector proteins to alter host metabolism related to immune responses including the structure of trichomes in host plants

Globalization and social distance: Multilevel analysis of attitudes toward immigrants in the European Union

Attitudes toward immigrants can, to a large extent, be determined by certain macro contextual factors. This paper tests a number of proposed hypotheses to illustrate patterns of influence generated by economic and social globalization on perceived social distance relative to immigrants. The European Union (EU) constitutes an ideal study case as its Member States vary in exposure to globalization and attract immigrants from different countries of origin. We conduct a multilevel analysis combining individual level variables from Eurobarometer’s recent dataset collected in 2017 and country-level variables from KOF of Globalization Index and other major sources. The results show that individuals in countries with higher degrees of social globalization have lower levels of social distance toward immigrants, while relative level of economic globalization has scant influence. Contact factors are also evaluated for their potential effects. Both casual and close contacts, as specified, reduce social distance. This study contributes to migration studies by offering a clearer specification of how social, rather than economic, globalization interact with contact factors to decrease one's perceived distance from immigrants in the EU

Introduction

MEXT-Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities (2014-2018)Forming a Social Well-being Research Consortium in Asi

Sequential change in olfaction and (non) motor symptoms: the difference between anosmia and non-anosmia in Parkinson’s disease

IntroductionHyposmia is a common prodrome in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD). This study investigates whether olfactory changes in PD differ according to the degree of olfactory dysfunction and whether there are changes in motor and non-motor symptoms.MethodsThe 129 subjects with PD were divided into two groups: anosmia and non-anosmia. All cases were reassessed within 1–3 years after the initial assessment. The assessment included the MDS-Unified PD Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS), the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), Beck’s Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and equivalence dose of daily levodopa (LEDD). The generalized estimating equation (GEE) model with an exchangeable correlation structure was used to analyze the change in baseline and follow-up tracking and the disparity in change between these two groups.ResultsThe anosmia group was older and had a longer disease duration than the non-anosmia group. There was a significant decrease in UPSIT after follow-up in the non-anosmia group (β = −3.62, p < 0.001) and a significant difference in the change between the two groups (group-by-time effect, β = 4.03, p < 0.001). In the third part of the UPDRS motor scores, there was a tendency to increase the score in the non-anosmia group compared to the anosmia group (group-by-time effect, β = −4.2, p < 0.038). There was no significant difference in the group-by-time effect for UPDRS total score, LEDD, BDI-II, and MoCA scores.DiscussionIn conclusion, this study found that olfactory sensation may still regress in PD with a shorter disease course without anosmia, but it remains stable in the anosmia group. Such a decline in olfaction may not be related to cognitive status but may be associated with motor progression