Unravelling the Intra-Cluster Medium with Numerical Simulations and Multi-Wavelength Observations

Galaxy clusters are the largest coherent structures in the Universe today. With masses of over $10^{14}M_\odot$ and hundreds to thousands of member galaxies, they represent the highest-density peaks of the Universe, sitting at the intersection of large-scale filaments as nodes of the Cosmic Web. In a $\Lambda$CDM Universe, smaller structures collapse first, and form ever larger structures by merging with one another. The story of a galaxy cluster, then, is the story of the Universe - a story of the balance between gravitational collapse, Hubble expansion and, at later times, acceleration by dark energy. Most of a cluster\u27s mass is dark, and most of the baryonic mass is in the diffuse intracluster medium (ICM); only about 3$\%$ of the cluster mass lies in galaxies. Star formation and stellar feedback, whose energy can be comparable to the binding energy of an individual galaxy, are negligible compared to the gravitational potential of the cluster. Cluster cosmology until fairly recently has relied on the relative unimportance of baryonic processes, and treated the baryons simply as observable tracers of the total gravitational potential, dominated by the dark matter. Cluster cosmology and cluster astrophysics, therefore, have remained slightly distinct areas of research. Over the course of my PhD, I have investigated several questions that complicate this simple model. I introduce the standard model of cosmology today, $\Lambda$CDM, and how we understand the formation of cosmic structure. I describe how optical, sub-millimeter, radio, gravitational lensing and X-ray observations probe different components of galaxy clusters, and how these relate to each other. Then, I explain the basic principles of numerical simulations, and the role of cosmological as well as idealised simulations in understanding galaxy clusters. My doctoral work then addresses three poorly understood processes - the role of Active Galactic Nuclei, mergers, and magnetic fields in the evolution of galaxy clusters, and their implications for cluster cosmology

Constraints from dwarf galaxies on black hole seeding and growth models with current and future surveys

Dwarf galaxies are considered to be potential ideal test-beds for constraining models of the seeding and tracing of the growth of supermassive and intermediate mass black holes (MBH) via their black hole occupation fraction (BHOF). Disentangling seeding from the confounding effects of mass assembly is, however, challenging. In this work, we use semi-analytical models (SAMs) to probe how various surveys perform at teasing apart different seed and growth scenarios. We check for differences in the measured BHOF given various cuts to black hole mass and AGN luminosity and develop a scheme to robustly compare SAMs, with their intrinsic uncertainties, to X-ray observations. We demonstrate that to tell seeding models apart, we need to detect or model all AGN brighter than $10^{37}\ \rm{erg \ s^{-1}}$ in galaxies of $M_* \sim 10^{8-10} \ \rm{M_{\odot}}$ Shallower surveys, like eRASS, cannot distinguish between seed models even with the compensation of a much larger survey volume. We show that the AMUSE survey strongly favours heavy seed models, growing with empirically motivated growth models either a power-law Eddington Ratio Distribution Function (ERDF) or one in which black hole accretion is tagged to the star-formation rate (AGN-MS). These two growth channels in turn can then be distinguished by the AGN luminosity function at $< 10^{44}\ \rm{erg \ s^{-1}}$. The different models also predict different radio scaling relations, which we quantify using the fundamental plane of black hole activity. We close with recommendations for the design of upcoming multi-wavelength campaigns that can optimally detect MBHs in dwarf galaxies.Comment: Submitted to AAS Journal

Painting baryons onto N-body simulations of galaxy clusters with image-to-image deep learning

Galaxy cluster mass functions are a function of cosmology, but mass is not a direct observable, and systematic errors abound in all its observable proxies. Mass-free inference can bypass this challenge, but it requires large suites of simulations spanning a range of cosmologies and models for directly observable quantities. In this work, we devise a U-net - an image-to-image machine learning algorithm - to ``paint'' the IllustrisTNG model of baryons onto dark-matter-only simulations of galaxy clusters. Using 761 galaxy clusters with $M_{200c} \gtrsim 10^{14}M_\odot$ from the TNG-300 simulation at $z<1$, we train the algorithm to read in maps of projected dark matter mass and output maps of projected gas density, temperature, and X-ray flux. The models train in under an hour on two GPUs, and then predict baryonic images for $\sim2700$ dark matter maps drawn from the TNG-300 dark-matter-only (DMO) simulation in under two minutes. Despite being trained on individual images, the model reproduces the true scaling relation and scatter for the $M_{DM}-L_X$, as well as the distribution functions of the cluster X-ray luminosity and gas mass. For just one decade in cluster mass, the model reproduces three orders of magnitude in $L_X$. The model is biased slightly high when using dark matter maps from the DMO simulation. The model performs well on inputs from TNG-300-2, whose mass resolution is 8 times coarser; further degrading the resolution biases the predicted luminosity function high. We conclude that U-net-based baryon painting is a promising technique to build large simulated cluster catalogs which can be used to improve cluster cosmology by combining existing full-physics and large $N$-body simulations.Comment: Accepted to MNRA

Turbulent magnetic fields in merging clusters: a case study of Abell 2146

Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities (KHI) along contact discontinuities in galaxy clusters have been used to constrain the strength of magnetic fields in galaxy clusters, following the assumption that, as magnetic field lines drape around the interface between the cold and hot phases, their magnetic tension resists the growth of perturbations. This has been observed in simulations of rigid objects moving through magnetized media and sloshing galaxy clusters, and then applied in interpreting observations of merger cold fronts. Using a suite of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of binary cluster mergers, we show that even magnetic field strengths stronger than yet observed (β = Pth/PB = 50) show visible KHI features. This is because our initial magnetic field is tangled, producing AlfvCrossed D sig

Weak-lensing mass bias in merging galaxy clusters

Although weak lensing (WL) is a powerful method to estimate a galaxy cluster mass without any dynamical assumptions, a model bias can arise when the cluster density profile departs from the assumed model profile. In a merging system, the bias is expected to become most severe because the constituent halos undergo significant structural changes. In this study, we investigate WL mass bias in binary cluster mergers using a suite of idealized hydrodynamical simulations. Realistic WL shear catalogs are generated by matching the source galaxy properties, such as intrinsic shape dispersion, measurement noise, source densities, etc., to those from Subaru and {\it Hubble Space Telescope} observations. We find that, with the typical mass-concentration ($M$-$c$) relation and the Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) profile, the halo mass bias depends on the time since the first pericenter passage and increases with the mass of the companion cluster. The time evolution of the mass bias is similar to that of the concentration, indicating that, to first order, the mass bias is modulated by the concentration change. For a collision between two $\sim10^{15}~M_{\odot}$ clusters, the maximum bias amounts to $\sim60\%$. This suggests that previous WL studies may have significantly overestimated the mass of the clusters in some of the most massive mergers. Finally, we apply our results to three merger cases: Abell 2034, MACS J1752.0+4440, and ZwCl 1856.8+6616, and report their mass biases at the observed epoch, as well as their pre-merger masses, utilizing their merger shock locations as tracers of the merger phases.Comment: 14 pages, 11 figures, submitted to Ap

Evidence for heavy seed origin of early supermassive black holes from a z~10 X-ray quasar

Observations of quasars reveal that many supermassive black holes (BHs) were in place less than 700 million years after the Big Bang. However, the origin of the first BHs remains a mystery. Seeds of the first BHs are postulated to be either light (i.e., $10-100~\rm{M_{\odot}})$, remnants of the first stars or heavy (i.e., $10^4-10^5~\rm{M_{\odot}})$, originating from the direct collapse of gas clouds. Harnessing recent data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory, we report the detection of an X-ray-luminous massive BH in a gravitationally-lensed galaxy identified by JWST at $z\approx10.3$ behind the cluster lens Abell 2744. This heavily-obscured quasar with a bolometric luminosity of $L_{\rm bol}\sim5\times10^{45}~\rm{erg\ s^{-1}}$ harbors a $M_{\rm BH}\sim10^7-10^8~\rm{M_{\odot}}$ BH assuming accretion at the Eddington limit. This mass is comparable to the inferred stellar mass of its host galaxy, in contrast to what is found in the local Universe wherein the BH mass is $\sim0.1\%$ of the host galaxy's stellar mass. The combination of such a high BH mass and large BH-to-galaxy stellar mass ratio just $\sim$500 Myrs after the Big Bang was theoretically predicted and is consistent with a picture wherein BHs originated from heavy seeds.Comment: 27 pages, 6 figures, accepte

ICM-SHOX. Paper I: Methodology overview and discovery of a baryon--dark matter velocity decoupling in the MACS J0018.5+1626 merger

Galaxy cluster mergers are rich sources of information to test cluster astrophysics and cosmology. However, cluster mergers produce complex projected signals that are difficult to interpret physically from individual observational probes. Multi-probe constraints on both the baryonic and dark matter cluster components are necessary to infer merger parameters that are otherwise degenerate. We present ICM-SHOX (Improved Constraints on Mergers with SZ, Hydrodynamical simulations, Optical, and X-ray), a systematic framework to jointly infer multiple merger parameters quantitatively via a pipeline that directly compares a novel combination of multi-probe observables to mock observables derived from hydrodynamical simulations. We report on a first application of the ICM-SHOX pipeline to the MACS J0018.5+1626 system, wherein we systematically examine simulated snapshots characterized by a wide range of initial parameters to constrain the MACS J0018.5+1626 merger parameters. We strongly constrain the observed epoch of MACS J0018.5+1626 to within $\approx -10$--$50$ Myr of the pericenter passage, and the observed viewing angle is inclined $\approx 25$--$38$ degrees from the merger axis. We obtain less precise constraints for the impact parameter ($\approx 100$--250 kpc), the mass ratio ($\approx 1.5$--$3.0$), and the initial relative velocity when the cluster components are separated by 3 Mpc ($\approx 1700$--3000 km s$^{-1}$). The primary and secondary cluster components initially (at 3 Mpc) have gas distributions that are moderately and strongly disturbed, respectively. We further discover a velocity space decoupling of the dark matter and baryonic distributions in MACS J0018.5+1626, which we attribute to the different collisional natures of the two distributions.Comment: 25 pages, 13 figures; submitted to Ap

Tidal Disruption Event Demographics with the Zwicky Transient Facility: Volumetric Rates, Luminosity Function, and Implications for the Local Black Hole Mass Function

We conduct a systematic tidal disruption event (TDE) demographics analysis using the largest sample of optically selected TDEs. A flux-limited, spectroscopically complete sample of 33 TDEs is constructed using the Zwicky Transient Facility over three years (from October 2018 to September 2021). We infer the black hole (BH) mass ($M_{\rm BH}$) with host galaxy scaling relations, showing that the sample $M_{\rm BH}$ ranges from $10^{5.1}\,M_\odot$ to $10^{8.2}\,M_\odot$. We developed a survey efficiency corrected maximum volume method to infer the rates. The rest-frame $g$-band luminosity function (LF) can be well described by a broken power-law of $\phi (L_g)\propto [(L_g / L_{\rm bk})^{0.3} + (L_g / L_{\rm bk})^{2.6}]^{-1}$, with $L_{\rm bk}=10^{43.1}\,{\rm erg\,s^{-1}}$. In the BH mass regime of $10^{5.3}\lesssim (M_{\rm BH}/M_\odot) \lesssim 10^{7.3}$, the TDE mass function follows $\phi(M_{\rm BH})\propto M_{\rm BH}^{-0.25}$, which favors a flat local BH mass function ($dn_{\rm BH}/d{\rm log}M_{\rm BH}\approx{\rm constant}$). We confirm the significant rate suppression at the high-mass end ($M_{\rm BH}\gtrsim 10^{7.5}\,M_\odot$), which is consistent with theoretical predictions considering direct capture of hydrogen-burning stars by the event horizon. At a host galaxy mass of $M_{\rm gal}\sim 10^{10}\,M_\odot$, the average optical TDE rate is $\approx 3.2\times 10^{-5}\,{\rm galaxy^{-1}\,yr^{-1}}$. We constrain the optical TDE rate to be [3.7, 7.4, and 1.6$]\times 10^{-5}\,{\rm galaxy^{-1}\,yr^{-1}}$ in galaxies with red, green, and blue colors.Comment: Replaced following peer-review process. 38 pages, 23 figures. Accepted for publication in ApJ

Constraints From Dwarf Galaxies on Black Hole Seeding and Growth Models With Current and Future Surveys

Dwarf galaxies are promising test beds for constraining models of supermassive and intermediate-mass black holes (MBHs) via their BH occupation fraction (BHOF). Disentangling seeding from the confounding effects of mass assembly over a Hubble time is a challenging problem that we tackle in this study with a suite of semianalytical models (SAMs). We show how the measured BHOF depends on the lowest BH mass or active galactic nucleus (AGN) luminosity achieved by a survey. To tell seeding models apart, we need to detect or model all AGNs brighter than 10 ^37 erg s ^−1 in galaxies of M _* ∼ 10 ^8−10 M _⊙ . Shallower surveys, like eRASS, cannot distinguish between seed models even with the compensation of a much larger survey volume. We show that the AMUSE survey, with its inference of the MBH population underlying the observed AGNs, strongly favors heavy seed models, growing with either a power-law Eddington ratio distribution function or one in which BH accretion is tied to the star formation rate (i.e., the AGN-main sequence, AGN-MS, model). These two growth channels can then be distinguished by the AGN luminosity function at >10 ^40 erg s ^−1 , with the AGN-MS model requiring more accretion than observed at z ∼ 0. Thus, current X-ray observations favor heavy seeds whose Eddington ratios follow a power-law distribution. The different models also predict different radio scaling relations, which we quantify using the fundamental plane of BH activity. We close with recommendations for the design of upcoming multiwavelength campaigns that can optimally detect MBHs in dwarf galaxies