Caring for young children: what children need

Caring for young children, and getting the caring right, is becoming recognised as one of the most significant challenges facing parents, communities and societies. Young children who develop secure attachments through positive caregiving are more likely to experience lower levels of stress and other associated benefits. In turn, they are more able to contribute positively to society and care for future generations. This Policy Brief summarises what is known about what young children need from parents and caregivers, and explores the implications for policy and practice. Why is this issue important? The care children receive in their first years of life has a lifelong impact and may even influence future generations. Parenting styles impact children’s development (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005) and the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children has shown that even subtle variations in parenting styles can have significant effects on child outcomes (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2006).&nbsp

Autism spectrum disorders

The earlier that children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) receive referral, diagnosis and intervention, the better the long-term results are for those children and their families (Barbaro & Dissanyake, 2009; Wiggins et al., 2006; Mandell et al., 2005). Primary health care professionals, such as child and family health nurses and GPs, can listen to parent concerns and be alert to the signs of developmental delay in infancy and early childhood to facilitate early referral and diagnosis. Indeed, Barbaro & Dissanayake state that primary health care professionals, given their extensive knowledge and training on developmental milestones, are the best placed – and most expert – to observe young children’s development and to identify early signs of ASDs (2010, p. 377). ASD IN AUSTRALIA: AN OVERVIEW ASD is the term used to refer to three types of developmental disorder: Autism, Asperger’s Syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). A diagnosis of one of the three indicates a developmental deficit of varying severity in the areas of: communication social skills and/or behaviour No two children with an ASD are the same, as they each have varying degrees of developmental deficit in the above three areas. This is why the term ‘spectrum’ is used when describing the disorder. In this article we will use the term ASD when referring to the all three of the disorders. Diagnoses of ASD have increased markedly since the 1990s. Prior to this, children were generally diagnosed with Global Developmental Delay or intellectual disability. Williams et al. (2008) found that: The current rate of prevalence in Australia is estimated at 1 in 160. Rates of diagnosis vary by state and territory due to differences in the way a diagnosis can be reached. Australian data show that about four boys are diagnosed with ASD for every one girl. The cause of ASD is not known, but is thought to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. It is not caused by anything the family does or does not do. Despite the recognition that signs of ASD can appear in infancy, one study from America found that the average age of diagnosis is around three or four years old (Mandell et al., 2005). In specialist centres, diagnoses can be made for some children as early as 24 months, and rarely earlier. Significant research is being done to try and reduce the average age of diagnosis as this may lead to an earlier intervention. In turn, earlier intervention could help improve developmental outcomes for children and their families and lessen the long-term impact of an ASD for an individual child (Barbaro & Dissanyake, 2009)

Physical punishment

One of the key responsibilities of parents is to help children learn to manage their emotions and behaviour. This supports children to become personally fulfilled individuals who can participate effectively in society. Parents can help children manage their emotions and behaviour through a variety of strategies including discipline, which might occasionally involve the use of negative consequences. However, physical punishment – causing a child pain or physical discomfort – is not only ineffective as a method of regulating children’s behaviour, but can also be harmful. Why is this issue important? The legal perspective The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CROC) specifically requires state parties to protect children \u27... from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or exploitation\u27 (Article 19 [1], United Nations, 1989). Article 37 goes on to state that \u27... no child shall be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\u27

Parenting young children

Parents have the primary role of guiding and nurturing their child, ensuring all the child’s physical, social and emotional needs are met, enabling them to develop and become an important part of the community in which they live. The challenge is to effectively support parents to be able to undertake this vital role in a manner that provides the best outcomes for the child, the family and the community as a whole. This Policy Brief explores the factors that influence parenting practices and the impact of these factors on a child’s development. The features of effective parental support are also examined. Why is this issue important? Scientific evidence shows that parenting plays a central role in the cognitive, language, social and emotional development of children (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), and is \u27probably the most important public health issue facing our society\u27 (Hoghughi, 1998). Surveys of parents in Australia and overseas show that parents view the task of parenting as critically important and personally rewarding; they also report that being a parent is demanding and can be stressful (Sanders et al, 1999; Oldershaw, 2002). Of particular concern is that many parents feel unsupported (Oldershaw, 2002) and relatively few participate in formal parenting education (Sanders et al, 1999).&nbsp

Television and early childhood development

Mass media play a significant role in most people’s lives, affecting family routines, social interactions, cultural norms, and leisure activities – all of which impact upon contemporary childhood. Television is particularly significant in early childhood; it is the child’s first and most enduring contact with the mass media and an integral part of the overall environment in which early childhood development occurs. With more than three televisions in the average household (Edgar & Edgar, 2008), \u27children in the twenty-first century typically develop in front of a screen\u27 (Calvert & Wilson, 2008). The interconnection between early childhood development and television begins at the start of life (ibid), making exposure to television one of the most enduring and consistent experiences of childhood, and arguably one of the most powerful.&nbsp

Childhood mental health: promotion, prevention and early intervention

Good mental health is essential for children\u27s learning, social development, self-esteem and resilience to stress throughout the life-course. Over half a million Australian children have significant mental health problems. This Policy Brief outlines ways that services can better support families to prevent mental health problems from developing in the first place. In this brief we describe childhood mental health problems under the umbrella of externalising problems, i.e. aggression, oppositional defiance, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and internalising problems, i.e. anxiety, depression. Why is this issue important? Children\u27s mental health problems have high human and financial costs for families and society, in both the short and long term (Barlow & Stewart-Brown, 2000; Bor et al, 2004; Sanders et al, 2000; Stewart-Brown, 1998). Such costs include social problems and school learning difficulties, along with clinical treatment and remedial education services. Childhood mental health problems often continue into adolescence and then adulthood, adding further costs related to areas such as school dropout, substance abuse, poor vocational outcomes, family violence and suicide, along with sick leave, unemployment and crime. Adult mental health problems then affect the next generation of children. For example, children whose parents have depression and anxiety are six times more likely to develop these problems themselves (Beardslee & Wheelock, 1994; Biedel & Turner, 1997). The Council of Australian Government (COAG) (2006) has identified mental health as a priority area. &nbsp

Integrating services for young children and their families

In an effort to improve outcomes for young children and their families, governments in all developed nations are making efforts to integrate services more effectively. This Policy Brief explores the rationale behind these efforts, what is known about their effectiveness, and the implications for policy makers and practitioners. In this Brief, integrating services refers to the process of building connections between services of different types so as to create a system that is more comprehensive and cohesive, as well as services being more accessible and more responsive. Why is this issue important? Over the past few decades, families have become more diverse, and the circumstances in which they are raising young children have changed significantly. As a result, parenting young children has become a more complex and more stressful task for many families, and there are more families with complex problems

Rethinking the transition to school: linking schools and early years services

Starting school is an exciting but also potentially stressful time for children and families alike. It is one of the key transition points during childhood. All such transitions are known to be times of particular vulnerability for young children, when earlier developmental and social progress is placed at risk. A successful transition to school is important for all children. This Policy Brief summarises the research evidence regarding transition to school, including strategies which aim to make it a smooth and successful process for children and their families.  Why is this issue important? Commencing school presents children and their families with both opportunities and challenges. It requires them to negotiate many changes - in identity, relationships, physical environment, social environment status, learning environment, and rules (Dockett & Perry, 2005, 2007a; Fabian, 2007). This can be a positive experience, but the more dramatic these changes are, the more difficult it can be for children and families to make the transition successfully

Use of cannabis in pregnancy and as a new parent

The most common illicit drug used by women of reproductive age and by pregnant women is cannabis (DrugInfo, 2005). Although there are limited national data available on illicit substance use among parents in Australia, the 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey estimated that 12% of parents with children aged 0–14 years used either an illicit substance (such as marijuana or ecstasy) or a licit substance (such as painkillers) for nonmedical purposes in the previous 12 months (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2009). \u27Maternal substance abuse is a potent risk condition\u27 (Boris in Zeanah, 2000) as infant development can be affected by interrelated mechanisms that are all clinically important; These can be: direct prenatal effects genetic effects (that influence both parent and infant) cumulative social risks For maternal child and family health nurses, identification and early intervention through active engagement is a priority. It is also essential to have knowledge of alcohol and drug use, its impact on the user and the baby, and what this means for the parents’ capacity to care for their infant. This article addresses these issues and provides an update about cannabis use

The impact of poverty on early childhood development

Children are particularly vulnerable developmentally in the earliest years of their life. For children living in poverty, the probability of being exposed to developmental risk factors is considerably higher. This Policy Brief examines the impact of poverty on early childhood development. It highlights both the risk and the protective factors for children living in poverty, and provides recommendations for policy. Historically, ‘poverty’ was defined in simple economic terms relating to the amount of money or material possessions one had or did not have. However, poverty has become a much more complex, multifactorial experience that extends beyond insufficient income. It incorporates the wider effects of social exclusion, shame, and reduced self-esteem and self-respect that result from a lack of access to material and cultural resources. This Policy Brief focuses on the extended concept of ‘relative poverty’ and its resulting personal and social costs.&nbsp