A COMPOSITE MODEL FOR THE SIMULATION OF SKIING TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION In this work we present a model for skiing technique analysis and simulation: it consists of a man model, an equipment model and a contact (ski-snow) model. Such a model is the basis for a deeper understanding of the interaction between skier and equipment and its use will be profitable in various applications such as: equipment optimisation and technique improvement. Moreover this simulation technique can be profitably used for teaching the basic principles of skiing. MATERIAL AND METHODS To build our model we combined the methods used for multibody systems dynamic analysis (man model with finite element techniques (ski model). The human body model consists of 3D chains of rigid bodies: according to the "sophistication" of the simulation we use 16 segments, with 39'internal d.0.f (full man model), or 7 segments, with 6 internal d.0.f . To describe rigid body dynamics and kinematics (man model) we adopt a method based on homogeneous matrices (Casolo 1995): both the absolute and the relative position, velocity and acceleration are described by 4x4 matrices, as well as the inertial properties and the external loads. This approach allows to embed both the linear and angular terms in the same formalism. To derive the equation of motion a Lagrangian approach was adopted, leading to this expression: Mq+C(cf.q.t) = Fl(q.q,t) +Ft(q,q) where M is the mass matrix, C contain the weight, the centrifugal and Coriolis effect, Ft contains joint torques, F2 represent the action exchanged with ski through the bindings and the vector q contains joints laws of motion. The model can be used to perform direct and inverse dynamics analysis of skiing, since it allows the input of joint torques and/or joint relative movements, that can be experimental data or can be generated by scratch, by a law of motion preprocessor. Skis are modelled with Finite Element techniques. The internal structure of a ski is quite complex: different material, with complex arrangement, are employed giving rise to properties (stiffness, damping and mass) which can be determined by experimental measures or by complex FE analysis. These properties can be quite well reproduced by means of a simplified model consisting of 3D beam elements . Some geometrical features, such as camber and sidecut, can be easily reproduced. Ski equations of motion, in matrix form, are: M9+ q v r e l + Kq&f = F,,I +Fnlon-ski f F.+.ki - cn,,wn where M, C, K are, respectively, the ski mass, damping and stiffness matrices. The ski load consists of three terms: weight, action exerted by the skier through the bindings and the contact action exerted by the snow. A simple contact model has been also developed, based on the assumption that the snow reacts both to ski deepening, sliding and skidding. This simple model can take into account, for example, the effect of ski vibration on the ski-snow interaction. RESULTS Some simulations have been performed to test model capabilities: we analysed the effect of ski torsional stiffness, as well as the amount of sidecut, on skier trajectory during traverse and turns. The model is also used to simulate the aerial phase of a free-style jump and the following landing phase. In all of these cases simulation can be an useful tool for predicting the effect of changing joint movements (i.e varying skiing technique) and equipment characteristics. A sensitivity analysis can be a first step toward a technique and equipment optimisation. References Casolo F., Legnani G., Righettini P., Zappa B. "A homogeneous matrix approach to 3D kinematics and dynamics", TMM (in press)

Relationships between population traits, nonstructural carbohydrates, and elevation in alpine stands of Vaccinium myrtillus

Premise: Despite great attention given to the relationship between plant growth and carbon balance in alpine tree species, little is known about shrubs at the treeline. We hypothesized that the pattern of main nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) across elevations depends on the interplay between phenotypic trait plasticity, plant\u2013plant interaction, and elevation. Methods: We studied the pattern of NSCs (i.e., glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starch) in alpine stands of Vaccinium myrtillus (above treeline) across an elevational gradient. In the same plots, we measured key growth traits (i.e., anatomical stem features) and shrub cover, evaluating putative relationships with NSCs. Results: Glucose content was positively related with altitude, but negatively related with shrub cover. Sucrose decreased at high altitude and in older populations and increased with higher percentage of vascular tissue. Starch content increased at middle and high elevations and in stands with high shrub cover. Moreover, starch content was negatively related with the number of xylem rings and the percentage of phloem tissue, but positively correlated with the percentage of xylem tissue. Conclusions: We found that the increase in carbon reserves across elevations was uncoupled from plant growth, supporting the growth limitation hypothesis, which postulates NSCs accumulate at high elevation as a consequence of low temperature. Moreover, the response of NSC content to the environmental stress caused by elevation was buffered by phenotypic plasticity of plant traits, suggesting that, under climate warming conditions, shrub expansion due to enhanced plant growth would be pronounced in old but sparse stands

Vernalization affects the germination performance of the wetland endangered species Eleocharis carniolica

Eleocharis carniolica W.D.J. Koch (Cyperaceae) is an endangered wetland spike rush mainly threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Understanding the germination ecology of this species is essential to perform successful conservation and restoration actions. In this study, we investigated the effect of vernalization (i.e. cold stratification), gibberellic acid (GA3) and chemical scarification on seed germination of E. carniolica from wild populations in northern Italy. The results showed that vernalization (i.e. 8-weeks at 4 °C) significantly improved germination probability, speed, and uniformity compared to non-stratified seeds. Gibberellic acid treatment alone or in combination with vernalization did not show a significant improvement in germination. Chemical scarification using sodium hypochlorite increased germination probability, with 8 h of scarification showing the highest success rate. However, 24-h scarification had a negative impact on germination. Overall, vernalization was found to be the most effective method to enhance germination in E. carniolica. These findings provide valuable insights into the seed germination ecology of this endangered species, aiding in its exsitu conservation, propagation, and in-situ restoration efforts. Moreover, they have important implications on future germination dynamics of this endangered species, especially with predicted climate change scenarios

Density functional investigations of defect induced mid-gap states in graphane

We have carried out ab initio electronic structure calculations on graphane (hydrogenated graphene) with single and double vacancy defects. Our analysis of the density of states reveal that such vacancies induce the mid gap states and modify the band gap. The induced states are due to the unpaired electrons on carbon atoms. Interestingly the placement and the number of such states is found to be sensitive to the distance between the vacancies. Furthermore we also found that in most of the cases the vacancies induce a local magnetic moment.Comment: 15 page

Restricted O2 consumption in pea roots induced by hexanoic acid is linked to depletion of Krebs cycle substrates

Plant roots are exposed to hypoxia in waterlogged soils, and they are further challenged by specific phytotoxins produced by microorganisms in such conditions. One such toxin is hexanoic acid (HxA), which, at toxic levels, causes a strong decline in root O2 consumption. However, the mechanism underlying this process is still unknown. We treated pea (Pisum sativum L.) roots with 20 mM HxA at pH 5.0 and 6.0 for a short time (1 h) and measured leakage of key electrolytes such as metal cations, malate, citrate and nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC). After treatment, mitochondria were isolated to assess their functionality evaluated as electrical potential and O2 consumption rate. HxA treatment resulted in root tissue extrusion of K+, malate, citrate and NSC, but only the leakage of the organic acids and NSC increased at pH 5.0, concomitantly with the inhibition of O2 consumption. The activity of mitochondria isolated from treated roots was almost unaffected, showing just a slight decrease in oxygen consumption after treatment at pH 5.0. Similar results were obtained by treating the pea roots with another organic acid with a short carbon chain, that is, butyric acid. Based on these results, we propose a model in which HxA, in its undissociated form prevalent at acidic pH, stimulates the efflux of citrate, malate and NSC, which would, in turn, cause starvation of mitochondrial respiratory substrates of the Krebs cycle and a consequent decline in O2 consumption. Cation extrusion would be a compensatory mechanism in order to restore plasma membrane potential

Stem photosynthesis contributes to non-structural carbohydrate pool and modulates xylem vulnerability to embolism in Fraxinus ornus L

Stem photosynthesis can significantly contribute to the carbon budget of woody plants, providing an extra carbon gain that might be crucial under drought stress causing leaf photosynthesis impairment and/or a reduced phloem transport.Stems of Fraxinus ornus L. saplings were covered with aluminum foil to test the impact of inhibition of stem photosynthesis on plant vulnerability to drought. Plants were water-stressed to target xylem water potential of-3.5 MPa and were then re-irrigated to field capacity to quantify their recovery capacity. Vulnerability to xylem embolism was assessed in light-exposed and stem-shaded saplings with both the hydraulic method and in vivo with X-ray phase contrast micro-computed tomography. We also measured non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) concentration and osmotic potential in bark and wood, separately.Stem shading increased xylem vulnerability to embolism formation under drought but did not influence the recovery phase. This difference was coupled with modification of the NSC pool and impaired osmoregulation, in particular in the wood of stem-shaded saplings compared to control ones.Our results indicate stem photosynthesis as an important source of local NSCs, directly or indirectly involved in osmoregulation processes, which could be crucial to enhance the hydraulic resistance to embolism formation and to endure drought

Transient Effects of Snow Cover Duration on Primary Growth and Leaf Traits in a Tundra Shrub

With the recent climate warming, tundra ecotones are facing a progressive acceleration of spring snowpack melting and extension of the growing season, with evident consequences to vegetation. Along with summer temperature, winter precipitation has been recently recognised as a crucial factor for tundra shrub growth and physiology. However, gaps of knowledge still exist on long-living plant responses to different snowpack duration, especially on how intra-specific and year-to-year variability together with multiple functional trait adjustments could influence the long-term responses. To fill this gap, we conducted a 3 years snow manipulation experiment above the Alpine treeline on the typical tundra species Juniperus communis, the conifer with the widest distributional range in the north emisphere. We tested shoot elongation, leaf area, stomatal density, leaf dry weight and leaf non-structural carbohydrate content of plants subjected to anticipated, natural and postponed snowpack duration. Anticipated snowpack melting enhanced new shoot elongation and increased stomatal density. However, plants under prolonged snow cover seemed to compensate for the shorter growing period, likely increasing carbon allocation to growth. In fact, these latter showed larger needles and low starch content at the beginning of the growing season. Variability between treatments slightly decreased over time, suggesting a progressive acclimation of juniper to new conditions. In the context of future warming scenarios, our results support the hypothesis of shrub biomass increase within the tundra biome. Yet, the picture is still far from being complete and further research should focus on transient and fading effects of changing conditions in the long term