Evaluation of the performance of a motion capture system for small displacement recording and a discussion for its application potential in bone deformation in vivo

The aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of a motion capture system and discuss the application potential of the proposed system in in vivo bone-segment deformation measurements. In this study, the effects of the calibration procedure, camera distance and marker size on the accuracy and precision of the motion capture system have been investigated by comparing the captured movement of the markers with reference movement. The results indicated that the system resolution is at least 20mm in a capture volume of 40033003300mm3, which mostly covers the range of motion of the tibia during the stance phase of one gait cycle. Within this volume, the system accuracy and precision decreased following the increase of camera distance along the optical axis of the cameras. With the best configuration, the absolute error and precision for the range of 20mm displacement were 1.2–1.8mm and 1.5–2.5mm, respectively. Small markers (Ø3–8 mm) yielded better accuracy and repeatability than the larger marker (Ø10.5mm). We conclude that the proposed system is capable of recording minor displacements in a relative large volume

Ozone and PAN formation inside and outside of the Berlin plume - process analysis and numerical process simulation

During the BERLIOZ field phase on 20 July 1998 a 40 km wide ozone-plume 30 to 70 km north of Berlin in the lee of the city was detected. The ozone mixing ratio inside the plume was app. 15 ppb higher than outside, mainly caused by high ozone precursor emissions in Berlin, resulting in a net chemical ozone production of 6.5 ppb h(-1), which overcompensates ozone advection of -3.6 ppb h(-1) and turbulent diffusion of -1.1 ppb h(-1). That means, although more ozone leaves the control volume far in the lee of Berlin than enters it at the leeside cityborder and although turbulent diffusion causes a loss of ozone in the leeside control volume the chemical production inside the volume leads to a net ozone increase. Using a semi-Lagrangian mass budget method to estimate the net ozone production, 5.0 ppb h(-1) are calculated for the plume. This means a fraction of about 20% of ozone in the plume is produced by local emissions, therefore called 'home made' by the Berlin emissions. For the same area KAMM/DRAIS simulations using an observation based initialisation, results in a net production rate between 4.0 and 6.5 ppb h(-1), while the threefold nested EURAD model gives 6.0 ppb h(-1). The process analysis indicates in many cases good agreement (10% or better) between measurements and simulations not only in the ozone concentrations but also with respect to the physical and chemical processes governing the total change. Remaining differences are caused by different resolution in time and space of the models and measurements as well as by errors in the emission calculation.The upwind-downwind differences in PAN concentrations are partly similar to those of ozone, because in the BERLIOZ case they are governed mainly by photochemical production. While in the stable boundary layer at night and windward of Berlin 0.1 to 0.3 ppb are detected, in the centre of the plume at noon concentrations between 0.75 ppb and 1.0 ppb are measured. The O-3/PAN ratio is about 80 to 120 and thus due to the relatively low PAN concentrations significantly higher than found in previous studies. The low PAN formation on 20 July, was mainly restricted by the moderate nonmethane hydrocarbon levels, whereas high PAN concentrations of 3.0 ppb on 21 July, are caused by local production in the boundary layer and by large scale advection aloft