Snake Bite in South Asia: A Review

Snake bite is one of the most neglected public health issues in poor rural communities living in the tropics. Because of serious misreporting, the true worldwide burden of snake bite is not known. South Asia is the world's most heavily affected region, due to its high population density, widespread agricultural activities, numerous venomous snake species and lack of functional snake bite control programs. Despite increasing knowledge of snake venoms' composition and mode of action, good understanding of clinical features of envenoming and sufficient production of antivenom by Indian manufacturers, snake bite management remains unsatisfactory in this region. Field diagnostic tests for snake species identification do not exist and treatment mainly relies on the administration of antivenoms that do not cover all of the important venomous snakes of the region. Care-givers need better training and supervision, and national guidelines should be fed by evidence-based data generated by well-designed research studies. Poorly informed rural populations often apply inappropriate first-aid measures and vital time is lost before the victim is transported to a treatment centre, where cost of treatment can constitute an additional hurdle. The deficiency of snake bite management in South Asia is multi-causal and requires joint collaborative efforts from researchers, antivenom manufacturers, policy makers, public health authorities and international funders

Acute pituitary insufficiency and hypokalaemia following envenoming by Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) in Sri Lanka: Exploring the pathophysiological mechanisms.

Russell's viper envenoming is associated with a high incidence of morbidity and mortality. Hypopituitarism following envenoming by Russell's vipers is a well recognized sequel in Burma and parts of India but has been reported only once in Sri Lanka. Hypokalaemia following envenoming by Russell's viper has not been described. Here we describe the association of acute pituitary insufficiency and hypokalaemia following Russell's viper envenoming in Sri Lanka and review the literature in order to understand its pathophysiological basis. A previously healthy 21-year-old man was envenomed by a Russell's viper and treated with antivenom. Ten hours after the bite, he developed persistent hypotension, which responded promptly to intravenous dexamethasone. His hormone profiles were consistent with hypocortisolism secondary to acute pituitary insufficiency. He also developed hypokalaemia. Analysis of urine and serum electrolytes suggested redistribution of potassium in to the cells rather than renal loss. Hypotension and hypoglycaemic coma are life-threatening manifestations of acute pituitary insufficiency. Therefore prompt steroid administration in these setting is life saving. Awareness of these complications among physicians would help to make prompt diagnosis and initiate immediate life saving treatment

Enzymatic and toxinological activities of Hypnale hypnale (hump-nosed pit viper) venom and its fractionation by ion exchange high performance liquid chromatography

Hypnale hypnale (hump-nosed pit viper) has been recently identified as one of the medically important venomous snakes in Sri Lanka and on the southwestern coast of India. The characterization of its venom is essential for understanding the pathophysiology of envenomation and for optimizing its management. In the present study, the biological properties of Hypnale hypnale venom and venom fractions obtained using Resource Q ion exchange chromatography were determined. The venom exhibited toxic activities typical of pit viper venom, comparable to that of its sister taxon, the Malayan pit viper (Calloselasma rhodostoma). Particularly noteworthy were its high activities of thrombin-like enzyme, proteases, phospholipase A2, L-amino acid oxidase and hyaluronidase. The thrombin-like enzyme was mainly acidic and distributed over several chromatography fractions, indicating its existence in multiple isoforms. The hemorrhagic and necrotic activities of the venom were likely associated with the proteolytic enzyme found mainly in the basic fraction. Phospholipase A2 and phosphomonoesterase exist in both acidic and basic isoforms, while L-amino acid oxidase and hyaluronidase are highly acidic. The venom clotting activity on fibrinogens showed distinct species specificity in the following increasing order for clotting time: bovine < rabbit < goat < human < horse < < dog, and was comparable to that of C. rhodostoma venom. Its clot formation on human fibrinogen is gradual and prolonged, a phenomenon suggestive of consumptive coagulopathy as a complication observed clinically. At an intramuscular sublethal dose, the venom did not cause acute kidney injury in a rodent model, contrary to the positive control group treated with Daboia russelii venom. Nephrotoxicity may result from higher venom doses in the context of coagulopathy, as a complication provoked by venom hematoxicity