Synergies across the natural resources management fields in Southern Africa: disaster risk reduction and one health

For various reasons, Southern Africa may be considered the playground as well as the thinking tank for many theories and practices in the natural resources management field. History has contributed to reshape conservation practices through colonial times, and recent wars have led to the relocation of people from their homelands and the appropriation by people of previously protected areas due to socio-economic pressures. Contemporary practices stemming from sustainable development have not yielded the expected results in resolving critical socio-economic stresses that impact on environmental health. Furthermore, human health has deteriorated in remote rural areas due to the failures of governance systems and the perpetration of non-participatory models for natural resources management, especially conservation. This paper seeks to explore how two relatively new approaches, Disaster Risk Reduction and One Health, can together tap into the theoretical and practical gaps left by previous paradigms in order to instill a sustainable development approach that can benefit both people and natural resources in remote and poor rural areas.Both authors are expert in the two approaches object of the text. None of the information provided is influenced by professional or personal affiliation to an institution, but it is the outcome of research work conducted in the field of study.The paper was conceived and written for the most part by C.B. (Faculty of Law, North West University). R.B. (Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria) was responsible for writing the One Health section and contributed to the review and finalisation of the paper.http://www.jamba.org.zaam201

Fiber type and metabolic characteristics of lion (Panthera leo), caracal (Caracal caracal) and human skeletal muscle

Lion (Panthera leo) and caracal (Caracal caracal) skeletal muscle samples from Vastus lateralis, Longissimus dorsi and Bluteus medius were analysed for fiber type and citrate synthase (CS; EC 2.3.3.1), 3-hydroxyacyl Co A dehydrogenase (3HAD; EC 1.1.1.35(, phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK; EC 2.7.1.11), creatine kinase (CK; EC 2.7.3.2), phosphorylase (PHOS; EC 2.4.1.1) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH; EC 1.1.1.27) activities and compared to human runners, the latter also serving as validation of methodology. Both felids had predominantly type IIX fibers (range 50-80%), whereas human muscle had more types I and IIs. Oxidative capacity of both felids (CS: 5-9 µmol/min/g ww) was lower than humans, whereas the glycolytic capacity was elevated. LDH activity of caracal (346±81) was higher than lion (277±62 µmol/min/g ww), with human being the lowest (55±17). CK and PHOS activities were also higher in caracal and lion compared to human, but PFK was lower in both felid species. The current data and past research are illustrated graphically showing a strong relationship between type II fibers and sprinting ability in various species. These data on caracal and lion muscles confirm their sprinting behaviour.The National Research Foundation of South Africahttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/cbpamn201

Is being with girls stressful? Social environment influences hormone levels in male giraffes

Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) live in a fission-fusion social system, characterized by the splitting and reunion of subgroups within a larger social network. Adult bulls show a roaming tactic to search for fertile females, whereas younger bulls are often seen in all male groups. In this study we combined behavioural observations with hormonal data. Therefore, a giraffe population of about 80 individuals (11 adult males, 28 adult females, and 32 juvenile / sub-adult animals) was monitored six days a week from dawn to dusk for a period of 12 months (Nov 2014–Oct 2015). Giraffes were individually identified by their unique pelage pattern and adult bulls assigned to age classes based on their appearance (A, B, and C), with class A bulls being the oldest and tallest. A total of 790 faecal samples were collected and analysed for faecal androgen (fAM) and glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations. Class A bulls show significantly higher fAM levels compared to younger bulls, with lowest fAM levels found for the juvenile / sub-adult group. Longer periods of increased fAM levels in the oldest bulls mainly occur during summer and are associated with an observed birthing peak. Within class A, fAM levels of bulls in all male groups are significantly lower than when associated with females, however, these levels are still significantly higher compared to respective fAM levels from youngest males. No significant differences in overall fGCM levels could be found between the different age classes. However, within class A the bulls show a trend for higher fGCM levels when sexually active compared to when associated with an all-male group. In contrast, juvenile / sub-adult bulls show highest fGM levels when they are in all-male groups, which is possibly linked to intrasexual competition as younger bulls still need to establish their position within the hierarchy.Poster presented at the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Veterinary Science Faculty Day, August 25, 2016, Pretoria, South Africa.ab201

Piroplasms in brown hyaenas (Parahyaena brunnea) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) in Namibia and South Africa are closely related to Babesia lengau

The objective of our study was identification and molecular characterisation of piroplasms and rickettsias occurring in brown (Parahyaena brunnea) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) from various localities in Namibia and South Africa. Whole blood (n=59) and skin (n=3) specimens from brown (n=15) and spotted hyaenas (n=47) were screened for the presence of Babesia, Theileria, Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species using the Reverse Line Blot (RLB) hybridization technique. PCR products of 52/62 (83.9%) of the specimens hybridized only with the Theileria/Babesia genus-specific probes and not with any of the species-specific probes, suggesting the presence of a novel species or variant of a species. No Ehrlichia and/or Anaplasma species DNA could be detected. Parasite 18S rRNA gene of brown (n=3) and spotted hyaena (n=6) specimens was subsequently amplified, cloned and the recombinants sequenced. Homologous sequence searches of databases indicated that the obtained sequences were most closely related to B. lengau, originally described from cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Observed sequence similarities were subsequently confirmed by phylogenetic analyses which showed that the obtained hyaena sequences formed a monophyletic group with B. lengau, B. conradae and sequences previously isolated from humans and wildlife in the western USA. Within the B. lengau clade, the obtained sequences and the published B. lengau sequences grouped into six distinct groups, of which groups I to V represented novel B. lengau genotypes and/or gene variants. We suggest that these genotypes cannot be classified as new Babesia species, but rather as variants of B. lengau. This is the first report of occurrence of piroplasms in brown hyaenas.http://link.springer.com/journal/4362018-02-28hb2017Centre for Veterinary Wildlife StudiesVeterinary Tropical Disease

Seasonal changes in social networks of giraffes

Fission‐fusion social societies allow animals to respond in a flexible manner to environmental changes by adapting the size and composition of a group. Although group members change frequently in these systems, associations with preferred partners may be found. In this study, we examined the grouping patterns of a population of 80 individual giraffes in a fenced South African game reserve over a 12‐month period. Using social network analyses as a tool to evaluate observed associations, we subsequently analysed both sex‐ and season‐related grouping patterns within the study population. Mixed sex groups represented 49% of all groups observed, and although overall group composition distribution did not differ significantly between seasons, the number of encountered single females decreased by 50%, whereas the number of multi‐male groups increased by over 50% in winter. Overall average group size did not differ significantly between seasons, but significantly larger multi‐female and multi‐male groups were seen in winter. Within the social network, two distinct clusters were found in summer, with the population more divided in winter, with five distinct clusters emerging. The strongest ties (highest HWIGs) were found between adult females. Our study revealed that giraffes not only live in a highly flexible social fission‐fusion system, but also show seasonal patterns of grouping.The National Research Foundation, South Africa and a postgraduate bursary from the DST-NRF SARChI chair for Mammal behavioural ecology and physiology to (NCB).http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1469-79982019-06-01hj2018Anatomy and PhysiologyCentre for Veterinary Wildlife StudiesZoology and Entomolog

Serological evidence of vaccination and perceptions concerning foot-and-mouth disease control in cattle at the wildlife-livestock interface of the Kruger National Park, South Africa

Communal livestock farming areas adjoining the Greater Kruger National Park Area within South Africa are part of the Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) Protection Zone with Vaccination due to the proximity to wildlife reservoirs. FMD and its control affect the productivity of resource-poor farmers who often depend on livestock for their livelihoods. A cross-sectional study was performed with the objectives to evaluate the perceptions of farmers concerning FMD control, estimate the proportion of cattle with presumed protective antibody titres against FMD, as well as the proportion of herds with adequate herd immunity at the wildlife-livestock interface within Mpumalanga Province. One hundred and four farmers were interviewed with 73% (76/104) being cattle owners and the remainder hired cattle herders. The majority of respondents (79%, 82/104) reported a high level of satisfaction with the current animal health programmes in general. The educational level of the respondents varied by satisfaction level: the median (interquartile range; IQR) education level was standard 9 (2–12) for non-satisfied respondents, standard 3 (0–6) for little satisfied and standard 7 (2–11) for very satisfied respondents (P = 0.036). Animals are not always treated at FMD inspections points, but satisfied respondents were more likely to seek veterinary assistance (P = 0.001). The majority of respondents (92%, 96/104) identified the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) as a risk factor for FMD outbreaks. Liquid-phase blocking ELISA antibody titres ≥1.6log10 were used to indicate positive serology secondary to FMD vaccination. At the time of sampling and relative to this threshold, 23% (95% confidence interval (CI): 12%–34%) of the sampled cattle had positive serology to SAT-1, 41% (95%CI: 33%–48%) to SAT-2 and 29% (95%CI: 19%–39%) to SAT-3. The median (IQR) time between the previous vaccination and sampling was 189 (168–241) days. The sampled cattle had a longer inter-vaccination interval as scheduled by state veterinary services and antibody levels were low at the time of the study. The majority of respondents expressed high satisfaction with the currently applied FMD vaccination programme, which provides an opportunity for progressive adaption of animal health programmes within the study area.This work was funded by contract agreement with the Peace Parks Foundation (Project No. A0U199), with additional support from the Research Development Programme (Project No. A0T384) at the University of Pretoria and Incentive Funding for Rated Researchers from the National Research Foundation (Project No. 76734).http://www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmedhj2019Production Animal Studie

Identification and molecular characterization of Babesia species in brown (Parahyaena brunnea), striped (Hyaena hyaena) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta)

Haemoparasites have been a source of economic and research interest for animal managers for some time. Of these, the role played by the Apicomplexan Babesia and Theileria species in both domesticated animals and wildlife has been of major importance, as has been the role that tick vectors play in their life cycle and the routes of transmission to domesticated animals. Babesia and Theileria species differ in morphology, life cycle, epidemiology and the clinical signs produced in host species. Both genera are obligate intracellular parasites. A major difference between the two genera is the fact that Theileria species undergo schizogony and transstadial transmission in the tick vector, while Babesia species do not undergo schizogony and have a transovarial mode of transmission in the tick vector. Investigating the role that specific probes, suggesting the presence of a novel species or variant of a species. No Ehrlichia and/or Anaplasma species could be detected. The parasite 18S rRNA gene of five spotted hyaena samples was subsequently amplified, cloned and the recombinants sequenced. Homologous sequence searches of databases that were performed using the BLASTn package indicated that the obtained sequences were most closely related (98 – 99% identity) to B. lengau, previously identified in cheetah in South Africa. The observed sequence similarities were subsequently confirmed by phylogenetic analyses which showed that the obtained hyaena sequences formed a monophyletic group with B. lengau, B. conradae and sequences previously isolated from humans and wildlife in the western USA. Within the B. lengau clade, the obtained sequences and the published B. lengau sequences grouped into four distinct groups, of which groups I, II and III each represented a novel B. lengau genotype. It remains difficult to establish how much 18S rRNA gene sequence variation must exist for the source organism to be considered a different species or to be considered merely a variant and/or genotype of a species. Based on this, as well as the fact that we do not have any data on the morphology of the parasites, their possible vectors or their role in clinical disease, we suggest that these genotypes cannot be classified as new Babesia species, but rather as variants of B. lengau. The study confirms that hyaena are susceptible to infection by a Babesia sp similar to B. lengau, but also demonstrates that they are not clinically affected by the infection. Their role as carriers of this organism and their ability to carry this infection over to other species still needs elucidation.Mini-dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2014.tm2015Veterinary Tropical DiseasesMScUnrestricte

Poo’s potential – can we link different land use practices to stress-related hormone levels in leopards (Panthera pardus)?

The leopard’s versatility as a generalist predator facilitates occupation of a wide range of habitats. Although protected areas are important for the conservation of this species, the majority of suitable leopard habitat lies beyond protected area boundaries. Leopards utilizing areas under different anthropogenic influences may therefore be exposed to different environmental, physiological, and psychosocial stressors. This study aims to examine the suitability of enzymeimmunoassays for monitoring adrenocortical function in the leopard based on faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) analysis by performing an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge test. Subsequently the study will investigate variations in fGCM concentrations of animals under different anthropogenic influences to identify the potential extrinsic and intrinsic stressors linked to different land use types. The ACTH challenge will be performed on one adult male and one adult female housed at Predator World in the Northwest Province. In addition, gastrointestinal transit time will be determined in 10 animals housed at different captive facilities in the North West, Mpumalanga, and Gauteng Provinces. A potential aging effect of the hormone matrix will be investigated by determining the rate of metabolism of fGCMs post-defaecation. Finally, faecal samples from free-ranging leopards in protected and unprotected areas of Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces including the Sabi Sands Game Reserve, Guernsey, the Hoedspruit Wildlife Estate and surrounds, will be collected over a period of 6 months. The ability to reliably assess adrenocortical function in leopards will provide a solid foundation from which to further examine endocrine responses to recognised stressors in this iconic African species. Specifically, our study will help to untangle some of the wildlife management, conservation, and human-predator conflict mitigation challenges faced by free-raging leopards at the human-domestic-wildlife interface.Poster presented at the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Veterinary Science Faculty Day, August 25, 2016, Pretoria, South Africa.ab201

The impact of age-class and social context on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in free-ranging male giraffes

One of the primary sources of perceived stress is the social environment of an animal and the interactions with conspecifics. An essential component of the response to a stressor is the activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis, which results amongst others in a temporal increase in circulating glucocorticoid (GC) levels. Giraffes occur in a highly flexible fission-fusion social system and group compositions can change on a daily basis, with bulls establishing an age-related dominance hierarchy and showing a roaming strategy in the search for fertile females. The aim of this study was to non-invasively monitor the influence of different group compositions (mixed sex groups vs. all-male groups) on GC concentrations in free ranging giraffe bulls of different age classes. We collected fecal samples from free-ranging giraffe bulls for 12 months in a South African Private Game Reserve to examine age- and social context-related patterns of fecal GC metabolite (fGCM) concentrations. We found that fGCM levels in giraffe bulls are age-class dependent, as well as associated with changes in the social environment. Independently of the social setting, bulls of the youngest age class exhibited the highest fGCM levels compared to bulls of the other two older age-classes, with differences most pronounced when the bulls are associated in all-male groups. In contrast, an almost reversed picture appears when looking at the fGCM levels of sexually active individuals in mixed sex groups, where highest levels were found for the bulls in the oldest age-class, and the lowest for the bulls in the youngest age-class. The study stresses the importance to taking factors such as age-related status and social settings into account, when interpreting fGCM levels in free ranging giraffes.The National Research Foundation, South Africa; a postgraduate bursary from the DST-NRF SARChI chair for Mammal behavioural ecology and physiology to (NCB); Novartis/South African Veterinary Foundation Wildlife Research Fund.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ygcen2019-01-01hj2017Anatomy and PhysiologyCentre for Wildlife ManagementMammal Research InstituteZoology and Entomolog

Age and socially related changes in fecal androgen metabolite concentrations in free-ranging male giraffes

In many mammal species, androgen levels in males are elevated during periods of mating activity, often to facilitate aggressive behavior between males over access to fertile females. However, this pattern might be less obvious in species with a rather low male-male aggression rate, or in those that are not strictly seasonal breeders. A complex social structure, as well as additional social and environmental factors, might add more to the complexity. Here, we applied a non-invasive method to monitor fecal androgen metabolite (fAM) levels in free-ranging giraffe bulls over a period of months to examine longitudinal patterns of androgen metabolite concentrations in relation to observed male sexual behavior in different age classes. Giraffes are non-seasonal breeders, living in a fission–fusion social system and males show a roaming strategy to search for fertile females. Our results show that season has an impact on fAM levels in free-ranging giraffes, with respective steroid concentrations being higher in summer. In the presence of females, fAM levels of bulls are significantly higher compared to when found in all-male groups, with old adult bulls showing the highest fAM levels. In contrast, young adult bulls have overall slightly higher fAM levels compared to old adult bulls when residing in all male groups. Sexual behavior increases fAM levels only in old adult bulls.The National Research Foundation, South Africa; a postgraduate bursary from the DST-NRF SARChI chair for Mammal behavioural ecology and physiology to (NCB); Novartis/South African Veterinary Foundation Wildlife Research Fund.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ygcen2019-01-01hj2017Anatomy and PhysiologyCentre for Veterinary Wildlife StudiesMammal Research InstituteZoology and Entomolog