History of the European Parliament : research projects, sources and historical memory 1979-2019

This publication is the result of the work and discussion by participants in the 2019 conference History of the European Parliament: research projects, sources and historical memory 1979-2019, organised by the Association of Friends of the Historical Archives of the European Union together with the Historical Archives of the European Union and the House of History of Europe. The conference was organised to mark the fortieth anniversary of the election of the European Parliament by universal suffrage. It brought together archivists, academics, former senior officials and well-known European parliamentarians to focus in particular on tracing the evolution of Parliament's historiography since the ECSC Consultative Assembly, and its acceleration following the Single Act and the Maastricht Treaty. This publication presents an inventory of the sources, written and oral, historical and memorial, as well as a revisitation of various research projects bearing on or relating to the history of a European institution whose role and legislative and budgetary powers have steadily increased since its first term of office

Implications of nitric oxide in therapeutic and tumor angiogenesis : from the dissection of the VEGF signaling pathway to preclinical applications

The central role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in physiological and pathological angiogenesis makes it attractive both as a therapeutic target for anti-angiogenic drugs in cancer treatment and as a pro-angiogenic cytokine to treat ischemic disease. Currently, it is well established that the VEGF but also other growth factors exert their angiogenic effects partly through the activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). A better understanding of the VEGF/NO signaling pathway could therefore lead to the identification of new therapeutic targets to impact on angiogenesis.This thesis is based on four different articles, the principal findings of which are summarized here below. First, we demonstrated that, chronologically, endothelial cell exposure to VEGF first led to eNOS dissociation from caveolin (a hallmark of the Ca2+/CaM-mediated activation of eNOS), and then to the interaction of eNOS with the heat shock protein hsp90. We also reported that eNOS-bound hsp90 could recruit VEGF-activated (phosphorylated) Akt to the complex, which in turn could phosphorylate eNOS on the serine 1177. Finally, we found that although the VEGF-induced phosphorylation of eNOS led to a sustained production of NO independently of a maintained increase in intracellular [Ca2+], this late stage of eNOS activation was strictly conditional on the initial VEGF-induced Ca2+-dependent stimulation of the enzyme. These data established the critical temporal sequence of events leading to the sustained activation of eNOS by VEGF and suggested new ways of regulating the production of NO in response to this cytokine through the structural protein caveolin and the ubiquitous chaperone protein, hsp90. A second study identified caveolin and Hsp90 as key players in the proangiogenic action of statins and therefore as potential pharmacological targets to modulate NO-dependent angiogenesis.We found that atorvastatin stabilized endothelial tube formation from both outgrowing and isolated macrovascular ECs cultured in Matrigel through a decrease in caveolin abundance and in its inhibitory interaction with eNOS. In a similar angiogenic assay, microvascular endothelial cells appeared also responsive to statins, not through a decrease in the caveolin pool (which is (too) large in these cells) but via the increased recruitment of hsp90 in the eNOS complex and the associated eNOS phosphorylation on the serine 1177. These data provided new mechanistic insights into the NO-mediated effects of statins and underscored the potential of these drugs and other modulators of hsp90 and caveolin abundance to promote neovascularization in disease states associated or not with atherosclerosis. In a third study, we have reported a net decrease in the ability of cultured ECs expressing recombinant caveolin to migrate and to form capillary like networks (e.g. the crucial steps occurring during the angiogenic process) in presence of VEGF. We then exploited the propensity of cationic lipids to target EC lining tumor blood vessels to transfect tumor-bearing mice in vivo. A dramatic tumor growth delay associated to a decrease in tumor microvessel density in the central core of the tumor was observed in mice transfected with caveolin versus sham-transfected animals. Interestingly, we also found that in the early time after lipofection (e.g. when macroscopic effects on tumor growth were not yet detectable), caveolin expression also impaired NO-dependent tumor blood flow. These findings indicated that besides (before) acting as an anti-angiogenic agent, recombinant caveolin can modulate the endothelium phenotype and impact on the tumor blood flow, both effects leading to a decrease in tumor growth. Finally, we showed that the activation of the VEGF/NO signaling pathway led to the down-regulation of adhesion molecules and to the anergy of endothelial cells. We found, indeed, that the adhesion of human CD8+ lymphocytes on microvascular endothelial cells exposed to TNF-a was dramatically reduced in the presence of VEGF. Interestingly, we also documented that the co-administration of the NOS inhibitor L-NAME or the Hsp90 inhibitor geldanamycin could restore this adhesion to the level originally obtained with TNF-a alone. Finally, we confirmed the key role of NO in the VEGF-mediated effects on the CD8+ adhesion by tipping the balance towards more or less angiogenesis through the transfection of caveolin siRNA or caveolin plasmid, respectively. In these experiments, lymphocyte adhesion appeared directly correlated to the extent of caveolin expression, confirming that the so-called anti-angiogenic strategy can directly impact on the phenotype of (tumor) endothelial cells and instead of (before) killing them, be exploited to potentiate cancer immunotherapy. In conclusion, by dissecting the post-translational regulation of eNOS, we have identified major therapeutic targets, namely caveolin and hsp90, that may be exploited either to block or promote angiogenesis. More particulary, cDNA encoding for these proteins or their mutant form, when combined with adequate mode of delivery, appeared to exert profound effects on the vascular compartment of tumors but also of ischemic tissues.(SBIM 3)--UCL, 200

Hsp90 ensures the transition from the early Ca2+-dependent to the late phosphorylation-dependent activation of the endothelial nitric-oxide synthase in vascular endothelial growth factor-exposed endothelial cells.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) exerts its angiogenic effects partly through the activation of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS). Association with heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) and phosphorylation by Akt were recently shown to separately activate eNOS upon VEGF stimulation in endothelial cells. Here, we examined the interplay between these different mechanisms in VEGF-exposed endothelial cells. We documented that hsp90 binding to eNOS is, in fact, the crucial event triggering the transition from the Ca(2+)-dependent activation of eNOS to the phosphorylation-mediated potentiation of its activity by VEGF. Accordingly, we showed that early VEGF stimulation first leads to the Ca(2+)/calmodulin disruption of the caveolin-eNOS complex and promotes the association between eNOS and hsp90. eNOS-bound hsp90 can then recruit VEGF-activated (phosphorylated) Akt to the complex, which in turn can phosphorylate eNOS. Further experiments in transfected COS cells expressing either wild-type or S1177A mutant eNOS led us to identify the serine 1177 as the critical residue for the hsp90-dependent Akt-mediated activation of eNOS. Finally, we documented that although the VEGF-induced phosphorylation of eNOS leads to a sustained production of NO independently of a maintained increase in [Ca(2+)](i), this late stage of eNOS activation is strictly conditional on the initial VEGF-induced Ca(2+)-dependent stimulation of the enzyme. These data establish the critical temporal sequence of events leading to the sustained activation of eNOS by VEGF and suggest new ways of regulating the production of NO in response to this cytokine through the ubiquitous chaperone protein, hsp90

Effects of vascular endothelial growth factor on the lymphocyte-endothelium interactions: identification of caveolin-1 and nitric oxide as control points of endothelial cell anergy.

Tumors may evade immune responses at multiple levels, including through a defect in the lymphocyte-vessel wall interactions. The angiogenic nature of endothelial cells (EC) lining tumor blood vessels may account for such anergy. In this study, we examined whether mechanisms other than down-regulation of adhesion molecules could be involved, particularly signaling pathways dependent on the caveolae platforms. To mimic the influence of the tumor microenvironment, EC were exposed to TNF-alpha and the proangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). We identified a dramatic inhibition of lymphocyte adhesion on activated EC following either short or long VEGF pretreatments. We further documented that VEGF did not influence the abundance of major adhesion molecules, but was associated with a defect in ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 clustering at the EC surface. We also found that overexpression of the caveolar structural protein, caveolin-1, overcame the VEGF-mediated inhibition of adhesion and restored ICAM-1 clustering. Conversely, EC transduction with a caveolin-1 small interfering RNA reduced the TNF-alpha-dependent increase in adhesion. Finally, we identified VEGF-induced NO production by the endothelial NO synthase as the main target of the changes in caveolin-1 abundance. We found that the NO synthase inhibitor N-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester could reverse the inhibitory effects of VEGF on lymphocyte adhesion and EC cytoskeleton rearrangement. Symmetrically, a NO donor was shown to prevent the ICAM clustering-mediated lymphocyte adhesion, thereby recapitulating the effects of VEGF. In conclusion, this study provides new insights on the mechanisms leading to the tumor EC anergy vs immune cells and opens new perspectives for the use of antiangiogenic strategies as adjuvant approaches to cancer immunotherapy

Hsp90 and caveolin are key targets for the proangiogenic nitric oxide-mediated effects of statins.

3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors or statins exert direct beneficial effects on the endothelium in part through an increase in nitric oxide (NO) production. Here, we examined whether posttranslational modifications of the endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) could account for the proangiogenic effects of statins. We used endothelial cells (ECs) isolated from cardiac microvasculature, aorta, and umbilical veins, as well as dissected microvessels and aortic rings, that were cultured on reconstituted basement membrane matrix (Matrigel). Tube or precapillary formation was evaluated after statin treatment, in parallel with immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation experiments. Atorvastatin stimulated NO-dependent angiogenesis from both isolated and outgrowing (vessel-derived) ECs, independently of changes in eNOS expression. We found that in macro- but not microvascular ECs, atorvastatin stabilized tube formation through a decrease in caveolin abundance and its inhibitory interaction with eNOS. We also identified the chaperone protein hsp90 as a key target for the proangiogenic effects of statins. Using geldanamycin, an inhibitor of hsp90 function, and overexpression of recombinant hsp90, we documented that the statin-induced phosphorylation of eNOS on Ser1177 was directly dependent on the ability of hsp90 to recruit Akt in the eNOS complex. Finally, we showed that statin promoted the tyrosine phosphorylation of hsp90 and the direct interaction of hsp90 with Akt, which further potentiated the NO-dependent angiogenic processes. Our study provides new mechanistic insights into the NO-mediated angiogenic effects of statins and underscores the potential of these drugs and other modulators of hsp90 and caveolin abundance to promote neovascularization in disease states associated or not with atherosclerosis

Antitumor effects of in vivo caveolin gene delivery are associated with the inhibition of the proangiogenic and vasodilatory effects of nitric oxide.

In tumors, caveolin-1, the structural protein of caveolae, constitutes a key switch through its function as a tumor suppressor and a promoter of metastases. In endothelial cells (EC), caveolin is also known to directly interact with the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and thereby to modulate nitric oxide (NO)-mediated processes including vasodilation and angiogenesis. In this study, we examined whether the modulation of the stoichiometry of the caveolin/eNOS complex in EC lining tumor blood vessels could affect the tumor vasculature and consecutively tumor growth. For this purpose, we used cationic lipids, which are delivery systems effective at targeting tumor vs. normal vascular networks. We first documented that in vitro caveolin transfection led to the inhibition of both VEGF-induced EC migration and tube formation on Matrigel. The DNA-lipocomplex was then administered through the tail vein of tumor-bearing mice. The direct interaction between recombinant caveolin and native eNOS was validated in coimmunoprecipitation experiments from tumor extracts. A dramatic tumor growth delay was observed in mice transfected with caveolin- vs. sham-transfected animals. Using laser Doppler imaging and microprobes, we found that in the early time after lipofection (e.g., when macroscopic effects on the integrity of the tumor vasculature were not detectable), caveolin expression impaired NO-dependent tumor blood flow. At later stages post-transfection, a decrease in tumor microvessel density in the central core of caveolin-transfected tumors was also documented. In conclusion, our study reveals that by exploiting the exquisite regulatory interaction between eNOS and caveolin and the propensity of cationic lipids to target EC lining tumor blood vessels, caveolin plasmid delivery appears to be a safe and efficient way to block neoangiogenesis and vascular function in solid tumors, independently of any direct effects on tumor cells

Irradiation-induced angiogenesis through the up-regulation of the nitric oxide pathway: implications for tumor radiotherapy.

The combination of radiotherapy and antiangiogenic strategies has been shown to increase the tumor response in various experimental models. The rationale for this cotherapy was initially related to the expected gain in efficacy by acting on two different targets, e.g., tumor cells and endothelial cells (ECs). However, recent studies have documented more than additive effects due to apparent mutual potentiation of these approaches. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that these synergistic effects could stem from the stimulatory effects of ionizing radiations on angiogenesis, which would then need to be restrained to avoid tumor regrowth after irradiation. We found that irradiation dose-dependently induced the activation of the proangiogenic NO pathway in ECs through increases in endothelial nitric oxide synthase abundance and phosphorylation. Using 2- and 3-dimensional cultures of ECs and isolated mouse tumor arterioles, we documented that the irradiation-induced enhanced production of NO accounted for EC migration and sprouting. Irradiation was also shown to stimulate the colonization of Matrigel plugs implanted in mouse by ECs, where they formed capillary-like structures in a NO-dependent manner. These findings were confirmed by documenting the NO-mediated infiltration of CD31-positive ECs after local irradiation of Lewis lung carcinoma tumor-bearing mice. Finally, we measured a consistent increase in endothelial nitric oxide synthase mRNA by real-time PCR experiments in human biopsies of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma after low-dose irradiation. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the potentiation of the NO signaling pathway after irradiation induces profound alterations in the EC phenotype leading to tumor angiogenesis. Moreover, our demonstration that the inhibition of NO production suppresses these provascular effects of irradiation highlights new potentials for the coordinated use of antiangiogenic strategies and radiotherapy in clinical practice

Irradiation promotes Akt-targeting therapeutic gene delivery to the tumor vasculature

PURPOSE: To determine whether radiation-induced increases in nitric oxide (NO) production can influence tumor blood flow and improve delivery of Akt-targeting therapeutic DNA lipocomplexes to the tumor. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The contribution of NO to the endothelial response to radiation was identified using NO synthase (NOS) inhibitors and endothelial NOS (eNOS)-deficient mice. Reporter-encoding plasmids complexed with cationic lipids were used to document the tumor vascular specificity and the efficacy of in vivo lipofection after irradiation. A dominant-negative Akt gene construct was used to evaluate the facilitating effects of radiotherapy on the therapeutic transgene delivery. RESULTS: The abundance of eNOS protein was increased in both irradiated tumor microvessels and endothelial cells, leading to a stimulation of NO release and an associated increase in tumor blood flow. Transgene expression was subsequently improved in the irradiated vs. nonirradiated tumor vasculature. This effect was not apparent in eNOS-deficient mice and could not be reproduced in irradiated cultured endothelial cells. Finally, we combined low-dose radiotherapy with a dominant-negative Akt gene construct and documented synergistic antitumor effects. CONCLUSIONS: This study offers a new rationale to combine radiotherapy with gene therapy, by directly exploiting the stimulatory effects of radiation on NO production by tumor endothelial cells. The preferential expression of the transgene in the tumor microvasculature underscores the potential of such an adjuvant strategy to limit the angiogenic response of irradiated tumors