Nested singletons in molecular trees: Utility of adding morphological and geographical data from digitized herbarium specimens to test taxon concepts at species level in the case of Casearia (Salicaceae)

Using the genus Casearia, we assessed the status of nested singletons: individual specimens corresponding to accepted species but in molecular trees appearing nested within clades of closely related species. Normally, such cases would be left undecided, while on the other hand, timely taxonomic decisions are required. We argue that morphological, chorological, and ecological data can be informative to illuminate patterns of speciation. Their use can provide a first step in testing taxon concepts at species level. We focused on five cases of nested singletons in trees of the genus Casearia. We employed PCA and cluster analysis to assess phenotypic differentiation. Using geocoordinates, we calculated niche space differentiation based on 19 bioclim variables, by means of PCA and niche equivalency and similarity tests and generated dot maps. We found that the singletons were morphologically distinctive in two of the five cases (Casearia selloana and C. manausensis), relatively distinctive in two other cases (C. zizyphoides and C. mariquitensis), and partially overlapping in the last case (C. grandiflora). For two cases (C. mariquitensis and C. selloana), ecological niche space was broadly overlapping, in two cases it was found broadly nested (C. grandiflora and C. zizyphoides), and in one case narrowly nested (C. manausensis), but in no case niche differentiation was observed. Niche overlap, similarity and equivalency showed corresponding patterns. Given these data, one would interpret C. selloana and C. manausensis as presumably well-distinguished taxa, their narrow distribution ranges suggesting recently emerging lineages. The other three cases are not clearcut. Morphological data would suggest particularly C. grandiflora conspecific with C. arborea, but differences in the distribution are intriguing. Our approach would reject the notion of potential synonymy based on nested phylogenetic placement for at least two of the five cases. The other case also shows no complete lack of differentiation which would support synonymy

In situ propagation of rhatany - Krameria lappacea (Krameriaceae): factors limiting natural regeneration and effects of reseeding measures

Krameria lappacea (ratania) ha sido utilizada y reconocida como planta medicinal y tintura vegetal desde épocas precolombinas. En los últimos 15 años se han estudiado la biología, propagación y abundancia de ratania en Perú y desarrollado métodos que garanticen una recolección silvestre sostenible. El objetivo de este trabajo es investigar qué factores limitan la propagación natural y evaluar si una resiembra de semillas durante la recolección puede facilitar el establecimiento de plantas nuevas in situ. Al investigarse la germinación de las semillas y la propagación in situ pudo comprobarse mediante experimentos de invernadero que el entierro de las semillas es un factor limitante para la germinación de K. lappacea y que la tasa de germinación puede incrementarse significativamente (3 – 4x) al enterrar las semillas. Tanto la resiembra de las semillas en los hoyos realizados tras la cosecha, así como la resiembra más esparcida en parcelas seleccionadas, puede contribuir al reforzamiento de la regeneración natural. Las raíces secundarias que quedan en el suelo después de la cosecha forman un nuevo meristemo y dan lugar al desarrollo de nuevas plantas. El pre-tratamiento de las semillas (escarificación) no produce ningún efecto claro en el éxito de la germinación, sin embargo, esta práctica facilita la manipulación durante la resiembra, asegurando que únicamente semillas viables y completamente desarrolladas sean utilizadas posteriormente.Krameria lappacea (rhatany) is a well established medicinal and dye plant that is used since pre-Colombian times. In the last 15 years the biology, distribution and abundance of rhatany in Peru was investigated and methods for a sustainable wildcrafting were developed. The objective of this work was to investigate which factors limit the natural propagation and to explore whether the reseeding measures can contribute to the establishment of new plants in situ. Investigating the germination and in situ propagation, greenhouse trials showed that the seed burial is an important, limiting factor for the germination of K. lappacea und the germination rate can be increased (3—4x) by burying the seeds. Both the burial of the seeds during collection and re-sowing measures on selected lots can contribute to the rejuvenation of the population. Secondary roots, which are left in the ground during harvest, are showed to form new shoot meristems and develop into new plants. Pre-treatment (scarification) of the fruits does not clearly influence the germination success, but it facilitates the handling of the seeds during re-sowing and ensures the use of only fully developed, viable seeds

Character evolution and biogeography of Casearia (Salicaceae): Evidence for the South American origin of a pantropical genus and for multiple migrations to the Caribbean islands

Casearia (Salicaceae) is a pantropical genus of circa 200 species, around half of which dwell in the Neotropics. Despite the availability of phylogenetic studies that suggest that Casearia sensu Sleumer is not monophyletic, a strong phylogenetic framework was still lacking for this genus. We tested the monophyly of Casearia and examined the relationships of its species to other taxa of the tribe Samydeae, including Laetia, Samyda and Zuelania, which recently have been sunk into Casearia, as well as Euceraea, Lunania, Neoptychocarpus, Ryania and Tetrathylacium. We further put a focus on the Neotropical taxa since Casearia and allies are speciose both on the Caribbean islands and adjacent mainlands, thus providing an interesting group to address the origin of the Caribbean and Cuban flora. Our phylogenetic analyses based on four combined rapidly evolving plastid regions (petD, rpl16, rps4-trnT-L-F, trnK-matK-psbA) as well as nuclear ITS revealed Casearia as monophyletic with high support, including not only the former members of Laetia, Samyda and Zuelania but also Euceraea and Neoptychocarpus. Casearia is constituted by several major clades, mostly being entirely Neotropical, one of which exclusively comprises species endemic to the Caribbean islands. Another clade, which includes all Palaeotropical species, is nested among Neotropical lineages. Our divergence date estimates using the plastid dataset and fossil calibration points in Salicaceae indicate that the Casearia crown group started to diversify during the late Eocene, approximately 39 Ma. The stem of the Old World clade diverged from Neotropical ancestors around 27 Ma, in the Oligocene. We used BayesTraits to reconstruct the evolution of seven characters commonly used to define Casearia and allied genera. We found morphological characters, such as branched inflorescences (fasciculate, glomerulous, cymose) or uniseriate stamen series, that work well to circumscribe the genus, whereas dioecy, which was used to diagnose Neoptychocarpus, or higher stamen numbers (>12), found in Laetia and Zuelania, are homoplastic in Salicaceae, the latter character derived within Casearia from ancestors with 7–12 stamens. Pellucid dots appear to have evolved earlier than the divergence of the Casearia clade in Samydeae, and were lost in Ryania and Tetrathylacium, and thus are no synapomorphy for Casearia. In order to establish a monophyletic genus concept for Casearia, we propose to also merge Euceraea and Neoptychocarpus. Our reconstruction of ancestral areas using BioGeoBears indicate that South America is the ancestral area of Casearia. From there, multiple migrations occurred to Mesoamerica and the Caribbean islands. The Caribbean that comprises nearly all Caribbean endemics started to diversify around 9.5 Ma. Our trees depict C. corymbosa, which exhibits significant infraspecific phylogenetic structure for the sampled Mexican and Colombian individuals, as the sister to the Caribbean clade. The other clade, with Cuban endemics (C. ternstroemioides) but also Mesoamerican and South American taxa, is not sufficiently resolved internally, to allow biogeographic conclusions. The Old World clade of Casearia provides another example for a late Laurasian migration starting in the Neotropics

Assessment of Land Cover Changes in the Hinterland of Barranquilla (Colombia) Using Landsat Imagery and Logistic Regression

Barranquilla is known as a dynamically growing city in the Colombian Caribbean. Urbanisation induces land use and land cover (LULC) changes in the city and its hinterland affecting the region’s climate and biodiversity. This paper aims to identify the trends of land use and land cover changes in the hinterland of Barranquilla corresponding to 13 municipalities in the north of the Department Atlántico. Landsat TM/ETM/OLI imagery from 1985 to 2017 was used to map and analyse the spatio-temporal development of land use and land cover changes. During the investigation period, the settlement areas grew by approximately 50% (from 103.3 to 153.6 km2), while areas with woody vegetation cover experienced dynamic changes and increased in size since 2001. Peri-urban and rural areas were characterized by highly dynamic changes, particularly regarding clearing and recovery of vegetated areas. Regression analyses were performed to identify the impact factors of detected vegetation cover changes. Computed logistic regression models included 20 independent variables, such as relief, climate, soil, proximity characteristics and socio-economic data. The results of this study may act as a basis to enable researchers and decision-makers to focus on the most important signals of systematic landscape transformations and on the conservation of ecosystems and the services they provide

Seeing the wood despite the trees: Exploring human disturbance impact on plant diversity, community structure, and standing biomass in fragmented high Andean forests

High Andean forests harbor a remarkably high biodiversity and play a key role in providing vital ecosystem services for neighboring cities and settlements. However, they are among the most fragmented and threatened ecosystems in the neotropics. To preserve their unique biodiversity, a deeper understanding of the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on them is urgently needed. Here, we characterized the plant communities of high Andean forest remnants in the hinterland of Bogota in 32 0.04 ha plots. We assessed the woody vegetation and sampled the understory and epiphytic cover. We gathered data on compositional and structural parameters and compiled a broad array of variables related to anthropogenic disturbance, ranging from local to landscape-wide metrics. We also assessed phylogenetic diversity and functional diversity. We employed nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) to select meaningful variables in a first step of the analysis. Then, we performed partial redundancy analysis (pRDA) and generalized linear models (GLMs) in order to test how selected environmental and anthropogenic variables are affecting the composition, diversity, and aboveground biomass of these forests. Identified woody vegetation and understory layer communities were characterized by differences in elevation, temperature, and relative humidity, but were also related to different levels of human influence. We found that the increase of human-related disturbance resulted in less phylogenetic diversity and in the phylogenetic clustering of the woody vegetation and in lower aboveground biomass (AGB) values. As to the understory, disturbance was associated with a higher diversity, jointly with a higher phylogenetic dispersion. The most relevant disturbance predictors identified here were as follows: edge effect, proximity of cattle, minimum fragment age, and median patch size. Interestingly, AGB was efficiently predicted by the proportion of late successional species. We therefore recommend the use of AGB and abundance of late successional species as indicators of human disturbance on high Andean forests

Biologie, Nachhaltigkeit und sozio-ökonomische Bedeutung der Ernte von Wildpflanzen im Nordwesten Südamerikas

All over the world and especially in the northwest of South America wild plants and plant resources are of high ecological, cultural and economic - often substantial – importance for countless people. Particularly in the species-rich tropics a wide variety of different plants provides an enormous range of essential ecosystem services that are used directly or indirectly by humans. Indirect use here refers to ecosystem services (such as, biomass and oxygen production by photosynthesis, carbon dioxide sequestration, water purification, erosion control, etc.), direct use represents the collection and use of ecosystem goods, i.e., the harvesting and utilization of plant resources (such as timber, fruits, leaves, roots, seeds, fibres, resins, waxes, etc.). This work focuses on two main subject areas in this context, which are presented separately in the different chapters: After a general, cross-thematic and contextualizing introduction (Chapter 1), the following three chapters deal with questions about the scope, sustainability and economic importance of traded resources from native palms (Arecaceae) in northwestern South America (Chapter 2-4). The second part of this thesis deals with botanical and ecological aspects and the sustainability in the management of wild stocks of a medicinal plant from the Peruvian Andes (Krameria lappacea) and the impact of wild harvest on the condition of individual populations (Chapter 5 & 6). The two topics are processed separately, with each chapter corresponding to a part of the work that has already been published or is in preparation to be published in scientific journals (see page 26 & 27). Each chapter therefore includes separate sections for introduction, materials and methods, results, and discussion. Chapter 7 summarizes the results of Chapters 2-4 (Arecaceae) and Chapter 5 & 6 (Krameria lappacea) and forms the conclusion of this study, which was based on the following research questions: 1\. How can the data on trade with wild plant resources be obtained in a standardized manner? 2\. What are the economically most important native palm species, raw materials and products in northwestern South America in terms of turnover and amounts traded? 3\. What is the overall socio-economic importance of the trade in palm resources for primary producers and which share of the overall benefits do they obtain? 4\. How are leaf and fruit production in Phytelephas aequatorialis correlated to environmental factors (altitude and exposure to sunlight) versus management? 5\. What is the biology of Krameria lappacea and how can sustainable management be based on a biological understanding of the species? To answer these questions both botanical methods were applied in field and laboratory work and in experiments in the greenhouse and botanical economic data were analyzed. Chapter 1 presents the here treated plants, explains the relationship between ecosystem services and the use of wild plants, reports on the legal backgrounds of wild harvesting and marketing of vegetable raw materials in South America and presents a typical analysis tool of economic botany. Furthermore, the objectives of the work are listed and the research approach is explained and a general overview of the structure of the dissertation is given. Chapters 2-4 deal with questions about the scope, sustainability and economic importance of the trade resources with native palm (Arecaceae) in northwestern South America. In Chapter 2, a standardized research protocol (SRP) is presented, which was designed as a simple and universally applicable tool for capture of relevant data on the production and commercialization of palm products by means of standardized surveys of stakeholders. The SRP consists of three components: (I) the manual with instructions for conducting interviews, including a questionnaire, (II) the forms for data recording during the interviews and (III) the data capture table (DCT) for the transfer and consolidation of data. The questionnaire includes all necessary questions, the answering of which represent relevant data that are necessary for the understanding of the detailed processes of all commercial activities (e.g., questions about origin, quantity and type of raw materials used, the timing and nature of manufacturing processes; expenses and profits of individual stakeholders, trade limiting factors). General problems and limitations in the application of the SRPs are discussed. Chapter 3 presents the results of an extensive revision on trade in palm products in northwestern South America, which is based on over 200 scientific publications and internet sources. Palm trees are particularly present near the equator and are known worldwide as third most important crop family after the grasses and legumes, as they provide a variety of raw materials and products. Besides wood, countless non- timber products (NTFPs) are used and marketed. The bulk of palm products is used directly and has particularly in rural communities of tropical countries many important applications in subsistence. Palms provide a wide range of resources ranging from food and feed, construction materials and raw materials for traditional or modern crafts through to cosmetics and medical applications. Trade with palm products takes place at the local, regional, national and international level. This work is focused on value chains, volumes traded, prices, and the recent developments of some of the most economically important, native palms and the raw materials they provide. Socio-economic aspects are also presented and discussed. For many households, the marketing of palm resources or products represents one of the most important options to participate in the cash economy, which is essential to provide access to health care and education. Overall, native palm products are playing an important socio-economic role in local, regional and sometimes national markets (“drivers of economy”) in South America. However, the number of traded native palm products decreases with increasing geographical extent, i.e., the number of products that are traded internationally is relatively small and represents only a fraction of the usable diversity of resources. Nevertheless, some native palms are of particular economic importance since they deliver export products with turnovers reaching tens of million US$, such as palm hearts and vegetable ivory. Chapter 4 is a case study on productivity and sustainable management of Phytelephas aequatorialis, a palm endemic to western Ecuador. This species provides vegetable ivory (tagua, the endosperm) for handicraft and also leaves for thatch. Harvest of commercialized resources is mainly from nature, although the palm is occasionally cultivated. Most seeds are collected from the ground. In times of high demand, however, some primary producers tend to collect immature inflorescence; these young seeds are of low quality and not suitable for the production of tagua products for export. The development of the inflorescence takes at least three years in the lowlands and over four years at the Andean slopes at around 1,400 m above sea level. Data from 365 palms included in this study showed that male palm trees produce significantly more leaves than female palms. The harvest of leaves has little effect on the production of leaves, but the fruit production is significantly reduced. Sustainable use and marketing of the two partially exclusive and locally competing products tagua (vegetable ivory) and cade (leaves for roofs) have to be carefully designed. Application of non- sustainable practices in the harvest of seeds and leaves, moderately efficient regeneration of populations in pastures and insufficient availability of high- quality raw material for the tagua manufacturing industry represent the greatest challenges in the sustainable utilization of this valuable palm species in the future. Chapter 5 and 6 deal with botanical and ecological aspects and backgrounds of sustainability in the management of wild stocks of a medicinal plant from the Peruvian Andes (Krameria lappacea) and the impact of wild harvest in the state of individual populations. In Chapter 5 the results of the study of parasitism and haustorium anatomy of Krameria lappacea (rhatany, Krameriaceae) are presented. Rhatany is an endangered medicinal plant from the semi-desert of the South American Andes and is destructively harvested from nature. The present study investigated the presence or absence of hemiparasitism, the host plant spectrum and morphology and anatomy of the haustoria. Hemiparasitism could be confirmed and 106 haustorial connections to 18 host plant species from 17 genera and 12 plant families were recorded. By the results of this study, the number of known host plants was doubled for Krameria and the list of hosts was extended by four angiosperm families. Overall, K. lappacea is a very generalistic hemiparasite, which probably influences the performance of most perennial species in its habitat. Over- collection therefore probably affects the entire vegetation notably. Strategies for the conservation and sustainable harvesting should have high priority due to the special ecological and economic importance of this species. Chapter 6 deals with the effects of wild harvest on the condition of natural Krameria lappacea populations and the question how to make the sustainable wild harvesting based on a better understanding of the biology of the species. Krameria root extracts are used as a promising ingredient for various cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations. However, commercial cultivation of this medicinal plant is not economical. The commercial sourcing takes place mainly in Peru. By destructive harvesting techniques and extensive marketing wild stocks of this type are becoming increasingly rare, and in some areas rhatany populations are already heavily degraded (commercially extinct). The study is based on abundance data from the 238 examined plots (100 square meters) in 6 regions in Peru and the conditions of the differently affected populations are compared and discussed. Experimental results on the germination of rhatany are presented, which have relevance for available management options. Strategies for the conservation of K. lappacea should have high priority and it is strongly recommended to promote the implementation of sustainable harvesting practices. In Chapter 9, the major findings of each chapter are finally summarized and discussed separately for both main subjects of this work.Auf der ganzen Welt und besonders im Nordwesten Südamerikas sind wilde Pflanzen und Pflanzenressourcen für unzählige Menschen von hoher ökologischer, kultureller und wirtschaftlicher - häufig substanzieller - Bedeutung. Besonders in den artenreichen Tropen liefert eine Vielzahl von unterschiedlichen Pflanzen eine enorme Bandbreite an essentiellen Ökosystemischen Leistungen, die direkt oder indirekt vom Menschen genutzt werden. Indirekte Nutzung bezieht sich hier auf Ökosystemische Leistungen (wie z.B., Biomasse- und Sauerstoffproduktion durch Photosynthese, Kohlendioxid- Sequestrierung, Wasserreinigung, Erosionsschutz, etc.), direkte Nutzung meint Entnahme und Gebrauch von Ökosystemischen Gütern, d.h. die Ernte und Nutzung von pflanzlichen Rohstoffen (wie Holz, Früchte, Blätter, Wurzeln, Samen, Fasern, Harze, Wachse, etc:). Im Zentrum dieser Arbeit stehen in diesem Zusammenhang zwei Themenbereiche, unterteilt in mehrere Teilaspekte, die separat in einzelnen Kapiteln bearbeitet werden. Nach einer allgemeinen, themenübergreifenden und kontextualisierenden Einleitung (Kapitel 1) beschäftigen sich die folgenden drei Kapitel mit Fragen zu Umfang, Nachhaltigkeit und wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung des Handels mit nativen Palmenressourcen (Arecaceae) im Nordwesten Südamerikas (Kapitel 2-4). Der zweite Teil der Arbeit befaßt sich mit botanischen und ökologischen Aspekten und Hintergründen zur Nachhaltigkeit in der Bewirtschaftung wilder Bestände einer Medizinalpflanze aus den peruanischen Anden (Krameria lappaceae) und den Auswirkungen der Wildernte auf den Zustand einzelner Populationen (Kapitel 5 & 6). Die beiden Themenbereiche werden separat bearbeitet, wobei die einzelnen Kapitel Beiträgen entsprechen, die bereits in Fachzeitschriften veröffentlicht wurden, bei diesen eingereicht sind oder in Kürze eingereicht werden. Dies ist den jeweiligen Fußnoten auf Seite 26 und 27 zu entnehmen. Jedes Kapitel enthält dementsprechend eigene Abschnitte zur Einleitung, zu den Materialien und Methoden, Ergebnissen und eine Diskussion. Kapitel 7 diskutiert zusammenfassend die Ergebnisse der Kapitel 2-4 (Arecaceae) bzw. Kapitel 5 & 6 (Krameria lappacea) und bildet den Abschluß der vorliegenden Arbeit, der folgende wissenschaftliche Fragestellungen zu Grunde lagen: 1\. Wie können Daten über den Handel mit pflanzlichen Ressourcen aus Wildernte in standardisierter Form aufgenommen werden? 2\. Welche sind die wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten einheimischen Palmenarten, Rohstoffe und Produkte in Bezug auf Umsatz und Handelsvolumen im nordwestlichen Südamerika? 3\. Welche sozioökonomische Bedeutung hat der Handel mit Palmrohstoffen für Primärproduzenten und wie hoch ist ihre Profitbeteiligung? 4\. Welchen Einfluß haben Umweltfaktoren (Höhenlage und Lichtintensität) und Bewirtschaftungweise auf Blatt- und Fruchtproduktion bei Phytelephas aequatorialis? 5\. Was ist die Biologie von Krameria lappacea und wie kann nachhaltiges Management auf dem biologischen Verständnis der Art basieren? Um diese Fragen zu beantworten wurden sowohl botanische Methoden in Feld- und Laborarbeiten angewandt, als auch Experimente im Gewächshaus durchgeführt und ökonomisch botanische Daten analysiert. Kapitel 1 stellt einleitend die hier behandelten Pflanzen vor, führt in die Thematik ein und erläutert den Zusammenhang zwischen Ökosystemischen Leistungen und der Nutzung von Wildpflanzen, berichtet über die legalen Hintergründe von Wildsammlung und Vermarktung pflanzlicher Rohstoffe in Südamerika und stellt ein in der ökonomischen Botanik eingesetztest Analysewerkzeug vor. Weiterhin werden die Ziele der Arbeit aufgeführt und es wird erläutert, welche Ansätze zur Bearbeitung der Themenkomplexe gewählt wurden und eine Übersicht über die Gliederung der Arbeit gegeben. Kapitel 2-4 beschäftigen sich mit Fragen zu Umfang, Nachhaltigkeit und wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung des Handels mit nativen Palmenressourcen (Arecaceae) im Nordwesten Südamerikas. In Kapitel 2 wird ein Standardisiertes Forschungsprotokoll (SRP) vorgestellt, welches speziell als einfaches und universell anwendbares Werkzeug entwickelt wurde, um relevante Daten zur Produktion und Vermarktung von Palmenprodukten mit Hilfe von Befragungen Beteiligter in einheitlicher Form aufzunehmen. Das SRP besteht aus drei Komponenten: (I) Anleitung zur Durchführung von Interviews und inklusive Fragenkatalog, (II) Formulare für die Datenaufnahme während der Befragungen und (III) Datenaufnahmetabelle (DCT) zur Übertragung und Zusammenführung von Daten. Der Fragenkatalog bezieht alle notwendigen Fragen mit ein, deren Beantwortung relevante Daten liefern, die für das Verstehen der genauen Abläufe aller kommerziellen Aktivitäten notwendig sind (z.B., Fragen zu Herkunft, Menge und Typ verwendeter Rohstoffe; Art und Ablauf von Verarbeitungsprozessen; Ausgaben und Gewinne einzelner Beteiligter; Faktoren, die den Handel limiteren). Generelle Probleme und Limitierungen in der Anwendungen werden diskutiert. Kapitel 3 stellt die Ergebnisse einer umfangreichen Revision über den Handel mit Palmenprodukten im nordwestlichen Südamerika vor, die auf über 200 wissenschaftlichen Publikationen und Internetquellen basiert. Palmen sind in Äquatornähe besonders präsent und gelten weltweit als drittwichtigste Nutzpflanzenfamilie nach den Süßgräsern und Hülsenfrüchten, da sie eine Vielzahl von Rohstoffen und Produkten liefern. Neben Holz werden auch zahllose Nicht-Holzprodukte (NTFPs) genutzt und vermarktet. Der größte Teil der Palmprodukte wird direkt genutzt und findet besonders in ländlichen Gemeinden tropischer Länder vielerlei subsistenziell bedeutende Anwendungen. Angefangen bei Nahrungsmitteln und Futtermitteln über Baumaterialien und Rohstoffe für traditionelles oder modernes Handwerk bis hin zu Kosmetika und medizinischen Anwendungen stellen Palmen eine große Bandbreite an Ressourcen bereit. Handel mit Palmprodukten erfolgt auf lokaler, regionaler, nationaler und internationaler Ebene. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt auf Wertschöpfungsketten, Handelsvolumen, Preisen, und den jüngsten Entwicklungen für einige der ökonomisch bedeutendsten, heimischen Palmen und deren Rohstoffe. Sozioökonomische Aspekte werden ebenfalls vorgestellt und diskutiert. Für viele Haushalte stellt die Vermarktung von Palmressourcen oder -produkten eine der wichtigsten Möglichkeiten dar auch über den Tauschhandel hinaus an der Geldwirtschaft teilzunehmen, was u.a. entscheidend für den Zugang zu ärztlicher Versorgung und Bildung ist. Insgesamt spielen native Palmprodukte in Südamerika also eine wichtige sozioökonomische Rolle in lokalen, regionalen und manchmal nationalen Märkten („drivers of economy“). Die Zahl der gehandelten nativen Palmprodukte nimmt jedoch mit steigendem geografischen Ausmaß deutlich ab, d.h., die Zahl der Produkte, die international gehandelt werden ist vergleichsweise gering und stellt nur einen Bruchteil der nutzbaren Ressourcenvielfalt dar. Native Palmen von besonderer ökonomischer Bedeutung liefern Exportprodukte mit Umsätzen in zweistelliger Millionenhöhe, wie z.B. Palmherzen und pflanzliches Elfenbein. Kapitel 4 ist eine Fallstudie zu Fragen der Produktivität und der nachhaltigen Bewirtschaftung von Phytelephas aequatorialis, eine im Westen Ecuadors endemisch vorkommende Palme. Von dieser Art werden pflanzliches Elfenbein (tagua, das Endosperm) und Blätter für das Decken von Palmdächern vor allem aus der Natur geerntet und kommerzialisiert, obwohl die Palme gelegentlich angebaut wird. Die meisten Samen werden vom Boden gesammelt. In Zeiten hoher Nachfrage jedoch, sammeln einige Primärproduzenten unreife Fruchtstände; diese jungen Samen sind von minderer Qualität und nicht geegnet für die Herstellung von tagua Produkten für den Export. Die Entwicklung der Fruchtstände dauert im Tiefland drei Jahre und über vier Jahre an den Anden-Hängen bei rund 1400 m ü.N.N. Daten von 365 untersuchten Palmen zeigen, dass männliche Palmen deutlich mehr Blätter als weibliche Palmen produzieren. Die Ernte von Blättern hat nur geringe Auswirkung auf die Produktion von Blättern, reduziert die Fruchtproduktion jedoch erheblich. Nachhaltige Nutzung und Vermarktung der beiden teilweise exklusiven und lokal konkurrierenden Produkte tagua (pflanzliches Elfenbein) und cade (Blätter für Dächer) müssen sorgfältig durchdacht werden. Einsatz nicht nachhaltiger Praktiken in der Ernte von Samen und Blättern, mäßig effiziente Regeneration von Populationen auf Weideland und unzureichende Verfügbarkeit hoch-qualitativer Rohstoffe für die verarbeitende Industrie repräsentieren die größten Herausforderungen bei der nachhaltigen Nutzung dieser wertvollen Palmart in der Zukunft. Kapitel 5 & 6 befassen sich mit botanischen und ökologischen Aspekten und Hintergründen zur Nachhaltigkeit in der Bewirtschaftung wilder Bestände einer Medizinalpflanze aus den peruanischen Anden (Krameria lappacea) und den Auswirkungen der Wildernte auf den Zustand einzelner Populationen In Kapitel 5 werden die Ergebnisse zur Studie Parasitismus und Haustoriumanatomie von Krameria lappacea (Ratanhia, Krameriaceae) präsentiert. Ratanhia ist eine gefährdete, übersammelte Heilpflanze aus den Halbwüsten in den südamerikanischen Anden und wird destruktiv aus der Natur geerntet. Die vorliegende Studie untersucht die Anwesenheit oder Abwesenheit von Hemiparasitismus, das Wirtspflanzenspektrum sowie Morphologie und Anatomie der Haustorien. Hemiparasitismus konnte bestätigt werden, 106 haustoriale Verbindungen zu 18 Wirtspflanzenarten aus 17 Gattungen und 12 Pflanzenfamilien wurden dokumentiert. Durch die Ergebnisse dieser Studie wurde die Anzahl von bekannten Wirtspflanzen für Krameria verdoppelt und um vier zusätzliche Angiospermefamilien erweitert. K. lappacea ist insgesamt ein sehr generalistischer Hemiparasit und hat Einfluss auf die Leistungsfähigkeit der meisten mehrjährigen Arten in ihrem Lebensraum. Übersammlung betrifft daher wahrscheinlich die gesamte Vegetation. Aufgrund der speziellen ökologischen und wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung dieser Art sollten Strategien zur Erhaltung und zur nachhaltigen Ernte hohe Priorität haben. Kapitel 6 befaßt sich mit den Auswirkungen von Wildernte auf den Zustand natürlicher Krameria lappacea Populationen und der Frage wie man auf Basis eines besseren biologischen Verständnisses der Art die Wildernte nachhaltiger gestalten kann. Krameria Wurzelextrakte werden als vielversprechende Zutaten für diverse kosmetische und pharmazeutische Präparate eingesetzt. Eine kommerzielle Kultivierung dieser Heilpflanze ist jedoch nicht ökonomisch. Die kommerzielle Beschaffung erfolgt hauptsächlich in Peru. Durch destruktive Erntetechniken und umfangreiche Vermarktung werden wilde Bestände dieser Art immer seltener und in einigen Gegenden ist Ratanhia bereits erheblich dezimiert (commercially extinct). Die Studie basiert auf den Abundanzdaten aus der Untersuchung von 238 plots (100 qm) in 6 Regionen in Peru und der Zustand der unterschiedlich beeinflußten Populationen wird verglichen und diskutiert. Experimentelle Ergebnisse zur Keimung von Ratanhia, die Relevanz für verfügbare Management-Optionen haben, werden vorgestellt. Strategien zur Erhaltung von K. lappacea sollten hohe Priorität haben und es wird dringend empfohlen die Umsetzung verfügbarer nac

Palmeras aceiteras del Ecuador: estado del arte en la investigación de nuevos recursos oleaginosos provenientes del bosque tropical.

Ecuador has one of the highest palm’s population diversity in the Neotropic (134 natives species); some of them have the potential like new sources of oils and fats. A bibliographic search showed 24 studies describing fatty acid composition for Ecuadorian palms (Astrocaryum, Attalea, Bactris, Cocos, Elaeis, Euterpe, Mauritia, Oenocarpus, and Phytelephas). PCA and UPGMA analysis showed that oils derived from palm fruits can be classified in function of tissue from where it was isolated: (a) oils derived from the mesocarp with high concentration of MUFAs, and (b) oils derived from the endosperm with high concentration of SFAs. Oils derived from Phytelephas aequatorialis (mesocarp) and Mauritia flexuosa (endosperm) showed a peculiar concentration of PUFAs. Despite of the economic potential of native palms like new sources of edible and industrial oils, the knowledge of the oil productivity, management of natural populations, and the conservation of the genetic resources need to be studied.Ecuador tiene una elevada diversidad de palmeras (Arecaceae) en su territorio (134 especies nativas), algunas de las cuales constituyen potenciales fuentes de aceites. Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica que incluyó 24 trabajos que reportan la composición de ácidos grasos y contenido de aceites de frutos de palmeras pertenecientes a los géneros Astrocaryum, Attalea, Bactris, Cocos, Elaeis, Euterpe, Mauritia, Oenocarpus, y Phytelephas. En base a los análisis de PCA y UPGMA, se observa que los aceites derivados de palmeras pueden clasificarse primariamente en función del tejido de aislamiento: (a) aceites derivados de mesocarpo ricos en ácidos grasos mono-insaturados (MUFAs), y (b) aceites derivados del endospermo ricos en ácidos grasos saturados (SFAs). En particular, el mesocarpo de Phytelephas aequatorialis y el endospermo de Mauritia flexuosa tienen una elevada proporción de ácidos poli-insaturados (PUFAs). A pesar del potencial de los aceites derivados de frutos de palmeras como nuevas fuentes oleaginosas; limitaciones en la productividad de aceite, en el manejo, extractivismo de especies dioicas, y la conservación de los recursos fitogenéticos requieren ser estudiado

Assessment of Land Cover Change in Peri-Urban High Andean Environments South of Bogotá, Colombia

Bogotá, the rapidly growing center of an emerging economy in the northern part of South America, is located within a biodiversity hotspot in the tropical Andes. The surrounding mountains harbor the ecosystems Páramo and Bosque Altoandino whose high water retention capacity serves as a “natural water tower” for the city’s freshwater supply. Since Bogotá is steadily growing, the city spreads into its peri-urban area, thus threatening its proximal ecosystems. In this study, the land use and land cover change (LULCC) of Bogotá’s surrounding area is analyzed with random forest algorithms for the period 1989 to 2016. The basin of the Rio Tunjuelo, a subbasin of the Rio Bogotá, was selected for analysis, as it is typical for the entire area in terms of relief, land use and land cover. A multiple logistic regression analysis is applied to identify different determining factors of the changes. LULCC analysis of the Rio Tunjuelo basin shows an ongoing but abating southward spread of Bogotá’s outer rim, an increase of agricultural land, and decrease of natural vegetation. After an initial heavily spatial spread of urbanization in the early 1990s, the speed of urban spread declined in the past years. Statistical analysis implies that the defined natural vegetation classes must be considered as one spatial entity. The probability for their change increases with decreasing distance to established agricultural areas, which indicates human impact as a relevant factor for LULCC. Generally, the explained deviance (D2) is low and hence it is presumed that the LULCC determining factors are not predominantly found among environmental parameters

Reconstructing Long Term High Andean Forest Dynamics Using Historical Aerial Imagery: A Case Study in Colombia

High Andean forests are biodiversity hotspots that also play key roles in the provisioning of vital ecosystem services for neighboring cities. In past centuries, the hinterland of Andean fast-growing cities often experienced a dramatic decline in forested areas, but there are reports that forest cover has been recovering recently. We analyzed aerial imagery spanning the years 1940 to 2007 from nine administrative localities in the Eastern Andean Cordillera of Colombia in order to elucidate precise patterns of forest vegetation change. To this aim, we performed image object-based classification by means of texture analysis and image segmentation. We then derived connectivity metrics to investigate whether forest cover trajectories showed an increase or decrease in fragmentation and landscape degradation. We observed a forest cover recovery in all the examined localities, except one. In general, forest recovery was accompanied by an increase in core habitat areas. The time scale of the positive trends identified partially coincides with the creation of protected areas in the region, which very likely furthered the recovery of forest patches. This study unveils the long-term dynamics of peri-urban high Andean forest cover, providing valuable information on historical vegetation changes in a highly dynamic landscape