The mechanical properties of avian bone and feathers

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Ancestrally high elastic modulus of gecko setal β-keratin

Typical bulk adhesives are characterized by soft, tacky materials with elastic moduli well below 1 MPa. Geckos possess subdigital adhesives composed mostly of β-keratin, a relatively stiff material. Biological adhesives like those of geckos have inspired empirical and modelling research which predicts that even stiff materials can be effective adhesives if they take on a fibrillar form. The molecular structure of β-keratin is highly conserved across birds and reptiles, suggesting that material properties of gecko setae should be similar to that of β-keratin previously measured in birds, but this has yet to be established. We used a resonance technique to measure elastic bending modulus in two species of gecko from disparate habitats. We found no significant difference in elastic modulus between Gekko gecko (1.6 GPa±0.15 s.e.; n=24 setae) and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii (1.4 GPa±0.15 s.e.; n=24 setae). If the elastic modulus of setal keratin is conserved across species, it would suggest a design constraint that must be compensated for structurally, and possibly explain the remarkable variation in gecko adhesive morphology