To Suppress Riots and Insurrections: Development and Transformation in Mississippi’s State Militia, 1865-1890

This thesis argues that Mississippi’s state militia after the American Civil War developed into a functional arm of the state to supplant extralegal paramilitary groups. However, that militia transformed between 1865 and 1890 from an organization devoted to protecting African-American political and civil rights into a mechanism for the enforcement of white supremacy. Mississippi’s Constitution of 1868 made the governor Commander-in-Chief of the state militia and designated that one of the militia’s responsibilities was “to suppress riots and insurrections.” While the law provided other reasons for using the militia, this thesis argues that Mississippi’s governors only used the militia to put down alleged riots and insurrections, while contemporary newspapers used the terms “riot” and “insurrection” to associate criminality with African-American political activism. This thesis also narrates the life of an African-American man named Oliver Cromwell and his presence at two representative “race riots” in the Clinton Riot of 1875 and the Leflore County Massacre of 1889 to highlight how the militia impacted individual citizens. Ultimately, this work concludes that the transformation of Mississippi’s state militia between 1865 and 1890 reveals how civilian access to the militia’s ranks and how the governor chose to deploy that militia impactfully reduced African-American rights in late-nineteenth century Mississippi and contributed to the disenfranchisement found in the state’s Constitution of 1890

To Suppress Riots and Insurrections: The Transformation of Mississippi’s State Militia 1868-1890

This thesis argues that between the ratification of Mississippi’s constitutions of 1868 and 1890, the state militia transformed from a tool to preserve the Republican Party and its predominately African American constituency, to a weapon of the Democratic Party to enforce white supremacy. Drawing on the militia’s legislated purpose “to suppress riots and insurrections” found in both the 1868 and 1890 constitutions, this thesis examines how race riots became the sole reason for militia deployment in late nineteenth century Mississippi and reveals how those alleged riots permitted Mississippi’s governors to undergird political power through shows of force. This work focuses on two “race riots”: The Clinton Riot of 1875 in Clinton, Mississippi, and the Leflore County Massacre of 1889 in Leflore County, Mississippi. Extensive primary documents such as newspapers, personal letters, and legal testimonies prove that the state militia stood at the forefront of historical change in Mississippi. Ultimately, the state militia operated as a symbolic show of force (rather than an active fighting force) tied to race riots despite who held political power in the state, while its goals and constituency changed entirely

Geoeconomic variations in epidemiology, ventilation management, and outcomes in invasively ventilated intensive care unit patients without acute respiratory distress syndrome: a pooled analysis of four observational studies

Background: Geoeconomic variations in epidemiology, the practice of ventilation, and outcome in invasively ventilated intensive care unit (ICU) patients without acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) remain unexplored. In this analysis we aim to address these gaps using individual patient data of four large observational studies. Methods: In this pooled analysis we harmonised individual patient data from the ERICC, LUNG SAFE, PRoVENT, and PRoVENT-iMiC prospective observational studies, which were conducted from June, 2011, to December, 2018, in 534 ICUs in 54 countries. We used the 2016 World Bank classification to define two geoeconomic regions: middle-income countries (MICs) and high-income countries (HICs). ARDS was defined according to the Berlin criteria. Descriptive statistics were used to compare patients in MICs versus HICs. The primary outcome was the use of low tidal volume ventilation (LTVV) for the first 3 days of mechanical ventilation. Secondary outcomes were key ventilation parameters (tidal volume size, positive end-expiratory pressure, fraction of inspired oxygen, peak pressure, plateau pressure, driving pressure, and respiratory rate), patient characteristics, the risk for and actual development of acute respiratory distress syndrome after the first day of ventilation, duration of ventilation, ICU length of stay, and ICU mortality. Findings: Of the 7608 patients included in the original studies, this analysis included 3852 patients without ARDS, of whom 2345 were from MICs and 1507 were from HICs. Patients in MICs were younger, shorter and with a slightly lower body-mass index, more often had diabetes and active cancer, but less often chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and heart failure than patients from HICs. Sequential organ failure assessment scores were similar in MICs and HICs. Use of LTVV in MICs and HICs was comparable (42·4% vs 44·2%; absolute difference -1·69 [-9·58 to 6·11] p=0·67; data available in 3174 [82%] of 3852 patients). The median applied positive end expiratory pressure was lower in MICs than in HICs (5 [IQR 5-8] vs 6 [5-8] cm H2O; p=0·0011). ICU mortality was higher in MICs than in HICs (30·5% vs 19·9%; p=0·0004; adjusted effect 16·41% [95% CI 9·52-23·52]; p<0·0001) and was inversely associated with gross domestic product (adjusted odds ratio for a US$10 000 increase per capita 0·80 [95% CI 0·75-0·86]; p<0·0001). Interpretation: Despite similar disease severity and ventilation management, ICU mortality in patients without ARDS is higher in MICs than in HICs, with a strong association with country-level economic status