Role of X11 and ubiquilin as In Vivo Regulators of the Amyloid Precursor Protein in Drosophila

The Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) undergoes sequential proteolytic cleavages through the action of β- and γ-secretase, which result in the generation of toxic β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides and a C-terminal fragment consisting of the intracellular domain of APP (AICD). Mutations leading to increased APP levels or alterations in APP cleavage cause familial Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thus, identification of factors that regulate APP steady state levels and/or APP cleavage by γ-secretase is likely to provide insight into AD pathogenesis. Here, using transgenic flies that act as reporters for endogenous γ-secretase activity and/or APP levels (GAMAREP), and for the APP intracellular domain (AICDREP), we identified mutations in X11L and ubiquilin (ubqn) as genetic modifiers of APP. Human homologs of both X11L (X11/Mint) and Ubqn (UBQLN1) have been implicated in AD pathogenesis. In contrast to previous reports, we show that overexpression of X11L or human X11 does not alter γ-secretase cleavage of APP or Notch, another γ-secretase substrate. Instead, expression of either X11L or human X11 regulates APP at the level of the AICD, and this activity requires the phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domain of X11. In contrast, Ubqn regulates the levels of APP: loss of ubqn function leads to a decrease in the steady state levels of APP, while increased ubqn expression results in an increase in APP levels. Ubqn physically binds to APP, an interaction that depends on its ubiquitin-associated (UBA) domain, suggesting that direct physical interactions may underlie Ubqn-dependent regulation of APP. Together, our studies identify X11L and Ubqn as in vivo regulators of APP. Since increased expression of X11 attenuates Aβ production and/or secretion in APP transgenic mice, but does not act on γ-secretase directly, X11 may represent an attractive therapeutic target for AD

Transcriptomic and genetic studies identify IL-33 as a candidate gene for Alzheimer's disease

The only recognised genetic determinant of the common forms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE). To identify new candidate genes, we recently performed transcriptomic analysis of 2,741 genes in chromosomal regions of interest using brain tissue of AD cases and controls. From 82 differentially expressed genes, 1,156 polymorphisms were genotyped in two independent discovery sub-samples (n=945). Seventeen genes exhibited at least one polymorphism associated with AD risk and following correction for multiple testing, we retained the IL-33 gene. We first confirmed that the IL-33 expression was decreased in the brain of AD cases compared with that of controls. Further genetic analysis led us to select 3 polymorphisms within this gene, which we analysed in three independent case-control studies. These polymorphisms and a resulting protective haplotype were systematically associated with AD risk in non-APOE ε4 carriers. Using a large prospective study, these associations were also detected when analyzing the prevalent and incident AD cases together or the incident AD cases alone. These polymorphisms were also associated with less cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) in the brain of non-APOE ε4 AD cases. Immunohistochemistry experiments finally indicated that the IL-33 expression was consistently restricted to vascular capillaries in the brain. Moreover, IL-33 overexpression in cellular models led to a specific decrease in secretion of the Aβ(40) peptides, the main CAA component. In conclusion, our data suggest that genetic variants in IL-33 gene may be associated with a decrease in AD risk potentially in modulating CAA formation

Evidence of a Role for Lactadherin in Alzheimer’s Disease

Lactadherin is a secreted extracellular matrix protein expressed in phagocytes and contributes to the removal of apoptotic cells. We examined lactadherin expression in brain sections of patients with or without Alzheimer’s disease and studied its role in the phagocytosis of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ). Cells involved in Alzheimer’s disease, including vascular smooth muscle cells, astrocytes, and microglia, showed a time-related increase in lactadherin production in culture. Quantitative analysis of the level of lactadherin showed a 35% reduction in lactadherin mRNA expression in the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease (n = 52) compared with age-matched controls (n = 58; P = 0.003). Interestingly, lactadherin protein was detected in the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and controls, with low expression in areas rich in senile plaques and marked expression in areas without Aβ deposition. Using surface plasmon resonance, we observed a direct protein-protein interaction between recombinant lactadherin and Aβ 1-42 peptide in vitro. Lactadherin deficiency or its neutralization using specific antibodies significantly prevented Aβ 1-42 phagocytosis by murine and human macrophages. In conclusion, lactadherin plays an important role in the phagocytosis of Aβ 1-42 peptide, and its expression is reduced in Alzheimer’s disease. Alterations in lactadherin production/function may contribute to the initiation and/or progression of Alzheimer’s disease