Police use of deadly force: Analysing police 'encounters' in Mumbai.

This study analyses the dynamics of the police decision to invoke deadly force in a particular situation called encounters, using the Mumbai police as a case study. Police encounters in India are officially portrayed as spontaneous, unplanned 'shoot-outs' between the police and alleged criminals, in which the criminal almost invariably is killed but there are hardly any injuries on the part of the police. However the 'cover story' is always the same raising the suspicion that it is a cover up for facts that might not be legally defensible or permissible. The core of this study is to understand why in a free and democratic society like India, such abuse of police use of deadly force is not only tolerated, but also in many ways (both overtly and tacitly) encouraged. The study adopts a qualitative approach to understand police officers' perspectives of the issues surrounding the use of deadly force and compares it with the perspectives of a few influential opinion makers via in-depth semi-structured interviews. A broader examination of media, social, organisational and governmental responses towards police use of deadly force helps contextualize police justifications within the Denial Theory framework and the study draws upon wider policing literature in the UK, USA, South Africa and certain Latin American countries to explain why this form of police violence occurs. The abuse of deadly force has to be understood as not only a social problem, but also a sociological one. It gives rise to fiindamental questions such as - what makes ordinary, 'decent' human beings do horrible things. What motivational techniques and justifications are used to override social norms governing moral conduct. This problem has received little attention in the Indian context, to that extent the research will fill a gap in the existing criminological literature and allow for a more comprehensive understanding of these issues. Also, by drawing lessons from the experience of other countries who have tackled similar problems, it will provide broad guidelines and recommendations for reforms in policing policy and practice

Treating and managing stalking offenders: findings from a multi-agency clinical intervention

The Multi-Agency Stalking Intervention Programme (MASIP), piloted in three police forces in England, delivered a range of risk management interventions, including bespoke psychological treatment to a subset of convicted stalkers. The interim aim was to equip offenders with tools to address their behaviour, as well as to support their transition towards full desistance. This study explores how offender-related interventions were conceived and implemented by stakeholders in this multi-agency partnership and examines whether the personal journeys of stalking offenders involved fulfilled the intended aims. Semi-structured interviews conducted with six clinicians, who delivered direct interventions, and six stalking offenders, who received such interventions, were analysed thematically. Clinicians conveyed that the multi-agency partnership working informed risk assessment, and design and delivery of bespoke therapeutic interventions. Offenders reported improvements in their own reflective, problem-solving, and decision-making skills. Additionally, therapeutic interventions assisted them in recognizing the seriousness of their behaviour; its impact on their own lives and their victims; in developing motivations to desist; and self-regulating with learned coping mechanisms. These findings are discussed and give rise to important considerations for practitioners with regards to targeted treatment and risk management of stalking offenders

What do we know about blended learning to inform police education? A rapid evidence assessment

This paper presents the findings of a rapid review of evidence on what works in blended learning in adult education which was undertaken to support the evidence informed introduction of blended learning in police education nationally across all police forces in England and Wales. Following a systematic search, screening, and quality assessment process, 42 studies, including 10 systematic reviews, were included in the final synthesis. Findings suggest that blended learning is at least as good as, if not more effective than, only face-to-face, or only online learning methods. The research evidence highlights the importance of bespoke design to suit learner needs and the type of content to be delivered, as well as the importance of providing appropriate support to both instructors and learners to engage with blended methods. Based on the findings, a toolkit is provided to guide police educators in designing and delivering curricula using blended methods

Violence against women in Corregidora, Mexico: the disconnect between women experiences and stakeholders' views

There is a paucity of official data on violence against women (VAW) in Mexico. Two-hundred and seventy-two household surveys and seven focus group discussions with 50 women were conducted to explore women’s experiences of VAW in public spaces in Corregidora, Mexico. Seven semi-structured interviews with stakeholders were carried out to understand their knowledge of VAW and reduction measures through infrastructure delivery and urban planning. Results showed that the most common and recurring type of VAW was catcalling, and 39 per cent of survey participants experienced at least one type of VAW. Government stakeholders appeared either unaware of the extent of VAW or were dismissive of its impact. The disconnect between women’s experiences and stakeholders’ views has implications for the design and implementation of safety measures for women

Interrater Reliability in Systematic Review Methodology

A methodologically sound systematic review is characterized by transparency, replicability, and a clear inclusion criterion. However, little attention has been paid to reporting the details of interrater reliability (IRR) when multiple coders are used to make decisions at various points in the screening and data extraction stages of a study. Prior research has mentioned the paucity of information on IRR including number of coders involved, at what stages and how IRR tests were conducted, and how disagreements were resolved. This article examines and reflects on the human factors that affect decision-making in systematic reviews via reporting on three IRR tests, conducted at three different points in the screening process, for two distinct reviews. Results of the two studies are discussed in the context of IRR and intrarater reliability in terms of the accuracy, precision, and reliability of coding behavior of multiple coders. Findings indicated that coding behavior changes both between and within individuals over time, emphasizing the importance of conducting regular and systematic IRR and intrarater reliability tests, especially when multiple coders are involved, to ensure consistency and clarity at the screening and coding stages. Implications for good practice while screening/coding for systematic reviews are discussed

Extending the remit of evidence-based policing

Evidence-based policing (EBP) is an important strand of the UK’s College of Policing’s Police Education Qualifications Framework (PEQF), itself a component of a professionalisation agenda. This article argues that the two dominant approaches to EBP, experimental criminology and crime science, offer limited scope for the development of a comprehensive knowledge base for policing. Although both approaches share a common commitment to the values of science, each recognizes their limited coverage of policing topics. The fundamental difference between them is what each considers ‘best’ evidence. This article critically examines the generation of evidence by these two approaches and proposes an extension to the range of issues EBP should cover by utilizing a greater plurality of methods to exploit relevant research. Widening the scope of EBP would provide a broader foundational framework for inclusion in the PEQF and offers the potential for identifying gaps in the research, constructing blocks for knowledge building, and syllabus development in higher level police education

Misconduct by police leaders in England and Wales: an exploratory study

The study that this article is based on examined cases of alleged misconduct involving chief police officers and staff. It described the nature of cases that came to light, examined pathways that lead to misconduct, and suggested ways of mitigating risks. The study was based on interviews with key stakeholders and with investigating officers in chief officer misconduct cases since April 2008. Cases involving chief officer misconduct fell into two broad categories: those associated with professional decision-making, and those related to interpersonal conduct. In around a third of cases, no misconduct was found. There were various routes into misconduct. The ethical climate of a police force was a key determinant of chief officer misconduct. Behaviour was also shaped by individual vulnerabilities, including lack of support, lack of challenge, exposure to corrupting influences, and cognitive failures in decision-making. Various things can be done to mitigate the risk of chief officer misconduct: police leadership needs to develop a greater consensus on what constitutes misconduct; Chief Officers need to recognise the specific risks of cognitive failure that organisational leaders face, and the temptations of excepting themselves from rules and norms. There also needs to be an organisational ethos in which leaders can be challenged, and in which leaders are given the right sort of support when faced with ethical challenges. There needs to be more recognition of the impact of selection and training processes, and of performance management systems, on the ethical climate of police organisations