Vocational and technical education in Peru

The relative costs of and returns to VTE (Vocational and Technical Education) and general education in Peru are investigated here. The paper is composed as follows. Following a brief introduction, section 2 describes the system of education in Peru and changes that have occurred in this system over time. Section 3 surveys the (relatively sparse) literature on comparative rates of return to VTE and general education. Sections 4 and 5 describe, respectively, the data used for this study and the model used to estimate the returns to different levels and types of education. Section 6 reports the results of the empirical analysis. Section 7 introduces data obtained from Peru's Ministry of Education on the relative costs of VTE and general education. The concluding section 8 considers the implications, if any, of the findings for educational policy.Teaching and Learning,Curriculum&Instruction,Gender and Education,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Primary Education

Costs and finance of higher education in Pakistan

Using data from colleges and universities, the authors investigate the costs and effectiveness of higher education in Pakistan, identify factors that influence those costs and effectiveness, and estimate levels of study subsidies. Not surprisingly, they find that most colleges and universities are underfunded. They operate with minimal faculty, spend little on learning materials, and cannot cut costs by enrolling more students without jeopardizing the quality of education. Available resources could be used more effectively by reducing the proportion of nonteaching employees - most of them servants - and by reallocating those resources to faculty and instructional materials. Student performance in examinations is consistent with the level and use of resources.Most students fail examinations, particulary in crowded institutions that offer few courses. And those who pass do so largely through their own efforts, not because of the quality of teaching. There are no institutional incentives for achievement or penalties for failure. Colleges and universities are not held accountable for the quality of instruction, cost recovery is low, and the government demands no standards. It would be imprudent for the Pakistan government to allocate more resources to the education sector until mechanisms have been established for more effectively allocating resources within and among institutions and for establishing incentives and improving institutional performance.Business in Development,Tertiary Education,Gender and Education,Teaching and Learning,Girls Education

Gains in the education of Peruvian women, 1940 to 1980

Since the mid 1950s, Peru's education policies have been designed to raise skill levels and make education available to more of the population. Those policies rested mainly on expanding the number of schools and as a result, school enrollment rates and attainment levels rose. However, an apparent parental preference to educate sons more than daughters meant that boys'schooling levels rose more quickly than girls'. Policies were not enough to bring girls'schooling even with boys', especially in rural areas. School quality, measured crudely by the supply of textbooks and the number of teachers, appears to have improved the schooling of women. Peru's education policies have reduced the direct costs associated with going to school. However, time allocation patterns reveal that the opportunity cost to the family of school attendance could be an effective barrier to further improvements in school enrollment and continuation rates. Even at a young age, girls - especially in rural families - participate in the labor market and contribute substantially to productive work at home.Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Primary Education,Teaching and Learning,Gender and Education,Population&Development

Promoting girls'and women's education : lessons from the past

Many societies underinvest in girls'and women's education for three main reasons: high direct, indirect, and cultural costs; too few private benefits; and parent's failure to consider the social benefits of education. Strategies that have increased female enrollment are those that: lower the costs of education by providing culturally appropriate facilities, scholarships, and alternative schools that offer classes in the early morning or evening; and those that train girls and women in growth sectors of the economy at the same time that they make strong recruitment and placement efforts. Strategies that have failed include those that distribute school uniforms and offer vocational training that is not directly linked to employment. Too little information is available to assess the effectiveness of programmed learning, day care, home technologies, information campaigns, school meals, and the revamping of curricula and textbooks to introduce broader roles for women. More research is needed on: 1) the importance parents and girls attach to the quality of available education when making their schooling decisions; 2) girls'and women's participation in educational programs; and 3) individual, family, community, and school factors that limit girls'and women's participation and achievement. There should also be more experiments with different approaches and more evaluation of program outcomes.Primary Education,Teaching and Learning,Gender and Education,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Girls Education

The effects of Peru's push to improve education

From the mid-1950s to the 1960s, the Government of Peru undertook a major expansion of public education, increasing the number of schools, requiring primary schools that offered an incomplete cycle to add grades, and increasing school inputs (principally teachers and textbooks). The paper examines the effects of Peru's educational policies, and the effects of family background and community characteristics on the schooling levels of a number of adults. Data on males and females were analyzed seperately by birth cohort.Teaching and Learning,Primary Education,Gender and Education,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Education Reform and Management

International consensus on anatomical structures to identify on ultrasound for the performance of basic blocks in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia

There is no universally agreed set of anatomical structures that must be identified on ultrasound for the performance of ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia (UGRA) techniques. This study aimed to produce standardized recommendations for core (minimum) structures to identify during seven basic blocks. An international consensus was sought through a modified Delphi process. A long-list of anatomical structures was refined through serial review by key opinion leaders in UGRA. All rounds were conducted remotely and anonymously to facilitate equal contribution of each participant. Blocks were considered twice in each round: for "orientation scanning" (the dynamic process of acquiring the final view) and for the "block view" (which visualizes the block site and is maintained for needle insertion/injection). Strong recommendations for inclusion were made if ≥75% of participants rated a structure as "definitely include" in any round. Weak recommendations were made if >50% of participants rated a structure as "definitely include" or "probably include" for all rounds (but the criterion for "strong recommendation" was never met). Thirty-six participants (94.7%) completed all rounds. 128 structures were reviewed; a "strong recommendation" is made for 35 structures on orientation scanning and 28 for the block view. A "weak recommendation" is made for 36 and 20 structures, respectively. This study provides recommendations on the core (minimum) set of anatomical structures to identify during ultrasound scanning for seven basic blocks in UGRA. They are intended to support consistent practice, empower non-experts using basic UGRA techniques, and standardize teaching and research. [Abstract copyright: © American Society of Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine 2021. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.

Recommendations for anatomical structures to identify on ultrasound for the performance of intermediate and advanced blocks in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia

Recent recommendations describe a set of core anatomical structures to identify on ultrasound for the performance of basic blocks in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia (UGRA). This project aimed to generate consensus recommendations for core structures to identify during the performance of intermediate and advanced blocks. An initial longlist of structures was refined by an international panel of key opinion leaders in UGRA over a three-round Delphi process. All rounds were conducted virtually and anonymously. Blocks were considered twice in each round: for ``orientation scanning'' (the dynamic process of acquiring the final view) and for ``block view'' (which visualizes the block site and is maintained for needle insertion/injection). A ``strong recommendation'' was made if \geq75% of participants rated any structure as ``definitely include'' in any round. A ``weak recommendation'' was made if >50% of participants rated it as ``definitely include'' or ``probably include'' for all rounds, but the criterion for strong recommendation was never met. Structures which did not meet either criterion were excluded. Forty-one participants were invited and 40 accepted; 38 completed all three rounds. Participants considered the ultrasound scanning for 19 peripheral nerve blocks across all three rounds. Two hundred and seventy-four structures were reviewed for both orientation scanning and block view; a ``strong recommendation'' was made for 60 structures on orientation scanning and 44 on the block view. A ``weak recommendation'' was made for 107 and 62 structures, respectively. These recommendations are intended to help standardize teaching and research in UGRA and support widespread and consistent practice