Menstrual Cycle Phases Influence on Cardiorespiratory Response to Exercise in Endurance-Trained Females

The aim of this study was to analyse the impact of sex hormone fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle on cardiorespiratory response to high-intensity interval exercise in athletes. Twenty-one eumenorrheic endurance-trained females performed an interval running protocol in three menstrual cycle phases: early-follicular phase (EFP), late-follicular phase (LFP) and mid-luteal phase (MLP). It consisted of 8 × 3-min bouts at 85% of their maximal aerobic speed with 90-s recovery at 30% of their maximal aerobic speed. To verify menstrual cycle phase, we applied a three-step method: calendar-based counting, urinary luteinizing hormone measurement and serum hormone analysis. Mixed-linear model for repeated measures showed menstrual cycle impact on ventilatory (EFP: 78.61 ± 11.09; LFP: 76.45 ± 11.37; MLP: 78.59 ± 13.43) and heart rate (EFP: 167.29 ± 11.44; LFP: 169.89 ± 10.62; MLP: 169.89 ± 11.35) response to high-intensity interval exercise (F2.59 = 4.300; p = 0.018 and F2.61 = 4.648; p = 0.013, respectively). Oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, respiratory exchange ratio, breathing frequency, energy expenditure, relative perceived exertion and perceived readiness were unaltered by menstrual cycle phase. Most of the cardiorespiratory variables measured appear to be impassive by menstrual cycle phases throughout a high-intensity interval exercise in endurance-trained athletes. It seems that sex hormone fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle are not high enough to disrupt tissues’ adjustments caused by the high-intensity exercise. Nevertheless, HR based training programs should consider menstrual cycle phase

Influence of sex hormones on body composition and cardiorespiratory response to exercise in trained females: IronFEMME study = Influencia de las hormonas sexuales en la composición corporal y la respuesta cardiorrespiratoria al ejercicio en mujeres deportistas: Proyecto IronFEMME

Introducción: En los últimos años se ha producido un incremento de la participación femenina tanto en deportes de competición como en actividad física recreativa. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría de los estudios son realizados con hombres, mientras que las mujeres son excluidas porque su estudio conlleva una serie de dificultades metodológicas. Concretamente, los diferentes estados hormonales por los que pasa una mujer a lo largo de su vida deben ser tenidos en cuenta. Esto se debe a que hay receptores de hormonas sexuales en tejidos como el hipotálamo, el sistema cardiorrespiratorio, el músculo y el tejido adiposo, lo que puede afectar el rendimiento. Por tanto, es importante investigar la posible influencia de las hormonas sexuales femeninas en el ejercicio. Los objetivos de esta tesis fueron evaluar la influencia de las hormonas sexuales femeninas en la composición corporal y en la respuesta cardiorrespiratoria en ejercicio en mujeres deportistas, analizando no solo diferentes perfiles hormonales (mujeres eumenorreicas, usuarias de anticonceptivos orales (OC) y mujeres postmenopáusicas), sino también las diferentes fases del ciclo menstrual y del ciclo de OC. Por un lado, se ha estudiado la influencia de los distintos perfiles hormonales en la densidad mineral ósea (BMD) (Estudio I) y en la composición corporal (Estudio II). Además, la composición corporal también ha sido evaluada en las diferentes fases del ciclo menstrual: fase folicular temprana (EFP), fase folicular tardía (LFP) y fase lútea media (LFP), así como en las distintas fases del ciclo de OC: fase no hormonal (WP) y fase hormonal (APP) (Estudio III). Por otro lado, la respuesta cardiorrespiratoria en ejercicio ha sido analizada comparando los tres perfiles hormonales (Estudio IV), a lo largo del ciclo menstrual (EFP, LFP y MLP) (Estudio V), a lo largo del ciclo de OC (WP y APP) (Estudio VI) y en mujeres postmenopáusicas comparándola con la de las eumenorreicas (Estudio VII). Conclusiones: Las principales conclusiones obtenidas son las siguientes: Las mujeres postmenopáusicas presentan valores de BMD más bajos que las mujeres eumenorreicas y las usuarias de OC. Además, el uso de OC parece no afectar a la BMD de las mujeres deportistas (Estudio I). Con respecto a los diferentes perfiles hormonales, estos parecen no influir en la composición corporal de las mujeres activas (Estudio II). Por último, las fluctuaciones hormonales a lo largo del ciclo menstrual y del ciclo de OC no influyen en la composición corporal de las mujeres deportistas (Estudio III). Con respecto a la respuesta cardiorrespiratoria durante una prueba incremental, esta respuesta está ligeramente empeorada en las mujeres postmenopáusicas. Sin embargo, el uso de OC parece no influir en la respuesta cardiorrespiratoria durante un ejercicio de intensidad creciente en mujeres deportistas (Estudio IV). Además, las fluctuaciones de las hormonas sexuales a lo largo del ciclo menstrual parecen no ser suficientes como para modificar los ajustes llevados a cabo por el sistema cardiorrespiratorio para realizar un ejercicio de alta intensidad (Estudio V). Por otro lado, las deportistas usuarias de OC sufren un aumento de la Ve en la APP, acompañado de un aumento de la RPE, lo que debería tenerse en cuanta a la hora de programar los entrenamientos (Estudio VI). Finalmente, las mujeres postmenopáusicas presentan una menor respuesta cardiorrespiratoria en ejercicio interválico de alta intensidad que la de las mujeres eumenorreicas. Sin embargo, ambas presentan un trabajo cardíaco similar en valores relativos (Estudio VII). ----------ABSTRACT---------- Introduction: Female´s participation in sports and recreational physical activities has increased in the last few year. Nonetheless, most research in sport is conducted with males and females are often excluded due to methodological difficulties. Concretely, different reproductive status occurring in females´ live span have to be taken into consideration. This is because there are sex hormone receptors in several non-reproductive tissues such as the hypothalamus, cardiorespiratory system, skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, that may influence performance variables in this population. Thus, it is important to start focussing research on these potential effects of sex hormones on their sports activities. Therefore, the aims of this thesis were to assess sex hormones influence on body composition (BC) variables and cardiorespiratory response to exercise in well-trained females analyzing not only different hormonal profiles (eumenorrheic females, OC users and postmenopausal women) but also across the different phases of the natural menstrual cycle (MC) and monophasic oral contraceptive (OC) cycle. On the one hand, it has been studied the impact of the different hormonal profiles on bone mineral density (BMD) (Study I) and body composition (BC) (Study II). Besides, BC variables have also been evaluated throughout the different phases of the MC and OC cycle (Study III). On the other hand, cardiorespiratory response to exercise has been evaluated comparing the three different hormonal profiles (Study IV), over the MC (Study V), across the OC cycle (Study VI) and in postmenopausal women (Study VII). Conclusions: The main findings of this thesis are the following ones. Active postmenopausal women have a lower BMD compared to both, eumenorrheic females and OC users (Study I). With regard to BC, sex hormones seem not to influence these variables in active women neither when comparing different hormonal profiles (Study II) nor throughout the MC and OC cycle (Study III). Moving on to the cardiorespiratory response to exercise, postmenopausal women present a slightly lower response during an incremental running test compared to premenopausal females. However, monophasic OC pills appear not to impact cardiorespiratory response to exercise (Study IV). On the one hand, sex hormone fluctuations throughout the MC appear not to be high enough to disrupt cardiorespiratory adjustments caused by the high-intensity exercise (Study V). On the other hand, OC users experience a higher Ve and RPE during the APP, that should be considered in female´s training programs (Study VI). Finally, postmenopausal women have a lower cardiorespiratory response to high-intensity interval running protocol than eumenorrheic females. Nonetheless, cardiac strain is similar when comparing both groups in relative values (Study VII)

Influencia del ciclo menstrual y el uso de anticonceptivos orales en el rendimiento y la salud de la mujer deportista

Introducción: La influencia de las diferentes fases del ciclo menstrual en el rendimiento en mujeres deportistas no está clara. Además, pocos estudios han evaluado la relación que hay entre el uso de anticonceptivos orales y el rendimiento deportivo en mujeres. Por tanto, la finalidad de este trabajo fue realizar una valoración funcional a una mujer con regla regular (menstruación, folicular y lútea) y a una mujer usuaria de píldora anticonceptiva (hormonal y no hormonal) en las diferentes fases del ciclo menstrual. Además, otro objetivo ha sido proponer pautas de entrenamiento para cada una de estas mujeres que eviten la deficiencia de hierro. Métodos: Dos mujeres practicantes de deportes de resistencia (edad: 32 años) han participado en este trabajo, una de ellas con reglas regulares y la otra usuaria de anticonceptivos orales. En primer lugar realizaron una densitometría ósea y una prueba de esfuerzo, así como una analítica basal. Posteriormente, se realizaron fases estables en tapiz rodante al 75% del consumo de oxígeno máximo en cada una de las fases hormonales (mujer reglas regulares: folicular temprana, folicular tardía y lútea; mujer usuaria píldora anticonceptiva: fase hormonal y fase no- hormonal). Resultados: No hay grandes diferencias entre la fase lútea y la folicular, mientras que la fase menstrual presenta un nivel mas bajo de VO2 en el caso de nuestra voluntaria de reglas regulares. Por otro lado, la voluntaria usuaria de píldora muestra una VE ligeramente inferior en la fase no-hormonal. Conclusiones: Una vez realizadas las pruebas de valoración, podemos concluir que la voluntaria de regla regular presentó durante la folicular temprana una respuesta fisiológica inferior; mientras que la voluntaria usuaria de anticonceptivos orales mostró una respuesta fisiológica inferior durante la fase no-hormonal

ANÁLISE DE POTABILIDADE BACTERIOLÓGICA DE ÁGUAS DE POÇOS CAVADOS DA ZONA PERIFÉRICA DE BARRETOS, SP, BRASIL

<p align="justify">Foram analisados 30 pontos distintos de água, sendo 27 de poços cavados e 3 de nascentes superficiais, na zona periférica da cidade de Barretos- SP, distribuídos em quatro bairros. A coleta foi feita em quatro etapas, com intervalo de 90 dias, totalizando 120 amostras. Das amostras analisadas, 106 (88,3%) foram positivas para coliformes totais e 48 (40,0%), para coliformes fecais. Não houve positividade para aeromonas móveis. Os dados obtidos indicam que a maioria das amostras analisadas não atende ao padrão de potabilidade, em virtude da presença de coliformes totais em 100 mL. A presença desse tipo de coliformes não parece estar relacionada com influências sazonais, enquanto a incidência de coliformes fecais apresenta correlação com os indices pluviométricos das etapas de amostragem: os meses de menor índice coincidem com menor positividade desse indicador bacteriano e os meses com índice mais alto, com maior porcentagem de positividade

Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phase on the Recovery Process of High-Intensity Interval Exercise—A Cross-Sectional Observational Study

Although the study of the menstrual cycle influence on endurance exercise has recently increased, there is a lack of literature studying its influence on females’ cardiorespiratory recovery. Thus, the aim of the present work was to assess menstrual cycle influence on post-exercise recovery following a high intensity interval exercise in trained females. Thirteen eumenorrheic endurance-trained females performed an interval running protocol in three menstrual cycle phases: early follicular phase (EFP), late follicular phase (LFP), and mid-luteal phase (MLP). The protocol consisted of 8 × 3-min bouts at 85% of their maximal aerobic speed (vVO2peak) with a 90-s rest between bouts and a final 5-min active recovery at 30% vVO2peak. All variables were averaged every 15 s, obtaining 19 moments during recovery (time factor). To analyze the effects of the menstrual cycle on the final active cardiorespiratory recovery, an ANOVA for repeated measures was performed. ANOVA showed an effect on menstrual cycle phase on ventilation (EFP: 1.27 ± 0.35; LFP: 1.19 ± 0.36; MLP: 1.27 ± 0.37), breathing frequency (EFP: 35.14 ± 7.14; LFP: 36.32 ± 7.11; MLP: 37.62 ± 7.23), and carbon dioxide production (EFP: 1120.46 ± 137.62; LFP: 1079.50 ± 129.57; MLP: 1148.78 ± 107.91). Regarding the interaction results (phase x time), ventilation is higher at many of the recovery times during the MLP, with less frequent differences between EFP and LFP (F = 1.586; p = 0.019), while breathing reserve is lower at many of the recovery times during MLP, with less time differences between EFP and LFP (F = 1.643; p = 0.013). It seems that the menstrual cycle affects post-exercise recovery specially during the MLP, rising ventilation and lowering breathing reserve, giving rise to an impaired ventilatory efficiency

Bone mineral density in well-trained females

Although the association between sex hormones and bone mineral density in healthy sedentary women has been widely studied (1,2), only a few studies have evaluated this relationship in trained females (3). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the influence of sex hormones on BMD in physically active females: eumenorrheic females, oral contraceptive (OC) users and postmenopausal women. The secondary aim was to determine if maximal oxygen consumption (V ̇O2max) or maximal back squat strength (1RM) could be good predictors of BMD in this population

Bone mineral density in well-trained females

Although the association between sex hormones and bone mineral density in healthy sedentary women has been widely studied (1,2), only a few studies have evaluated this relationship in trained females (3). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the influence of sex hormones on BMD in physically active females: eumenorrheic females, oral contraceptive (OC) users and postmenopausal women. The secondary aim was to determine if maximal oxygen consumption (V ̇O2max) or maximal back squat strength (1RM) could be good predictors of BMD in this population

Respiratory and perceived exertion variables during an intervallic endurance protocol through menstrual cycle phases

Respiratory variables, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and perceived readiness (PR) can vary depending on the menstrual cycle phase due to the different sexual hormone environments found through it [1, 2]. Few studies compare more than 2 menstrual cycle phases and even fewer use intense intervallic endurance protocols [1, 2]. Additionally, oestrogen seems to have powerful effects in some exercise variables, although it may reduce muscle endurance capacity [3]. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to compare respiratory variables, RPE and PR measured in 3 phases of the menstrual cycle during an intervallic endurance protocol