Mode of action of lymphostatin, a key virulence factor of attaching & effacing Escherichia coli

Attaching and effacing Escherichia coli are significant diarrhoeal pathogens that can spread between humans or via animal reservoirs. One important virulence factor is a large multifunctional protein called lymphostatin (LifA), which has been reported to inhibit the mitogen-stimulated proliferation of lymphocytes and mediate adherence to epithelial cells. Mutants of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli lacking lifA are significantly impaired in their ability to colonise cattle. Little is known about the mode of action of LifA, however in silico analysis has identified a putative glycosyltransferase domain homologous to that of large clostridial toxins (LCTs). A shortened form of LifA has been shown to be Type III secreted, however it is not known if this is true for the full-length protein. Type III secretion assays using the prototype enteropathogenic E. coli strain E2348/69 and isogenic lifA and Type III secretion system mutants confirmed that LifA can be secreted through this transport system. Working in collaboration, I was also able to demonstrate that LifA can be purified in an active form that binds uridine diphosphate-N-Acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) but not UDP-glucose. In order to probe the importance of a putative catalytic DXD motif within the glycosyltransferase domain, an in-frame DXD to AAA substitution mutant of full-length LifA was constructed. The ability of the purified wild-type and mutated protein to bind UDP sugars and inhibit bovine T cell proliferation were then examined. DXD-AAA substitution resulted in loss of binding of UDP-GlcNAc and the ability to inhibit mitogenic stimulation of bovine T cells, without obvious changes to the biophysical properties of the protein. Unlike LCTs, wild-type LifA did not appear to be directly cytotoxic to HeLa or Jurkat cells using a fluorescence-based assay for release of lactate dehydrogenase. Future studies will seek to define the cellular targets and consequences of GlcNAc modification by lymphostatin, as well as identifying other possible mechanisms of secretion and its ability to act as an adhesin

Mode of action of a novel lymphocyte inhibitory factor of attaching and effacing Escherichia coli

Attaching and effacing Escherichia coli are significant diarrhoeal pathogens that can spread between humans or via animal reservoirs. An important virulence factor produced by these bacteria is the large multifunctional protein lymphostatin (LifA), which has been reported to inhibit the mitogen- and antigen-stimulated proliferation of lymphocytes as well as mediate adherence to epithelial cells. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli lacking lifA are significantly impaired in their ability to colonise cattle. Little is known about the mode of action of LifA, however, in silico analysis has identified a putative glycosyltransferase domain homologous to that of large clostridial toxins and a putative cysteine protease domain homologous to that of C58 family proteases. LifA has recently been reported to bind uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) and mutation of a DXD motif within the predicted glycosyltransferase domain abolished this binding and lymphostatin activity. In this study, I sought to identify domains of LifA required for cell binding and lymphostatin activity, probe the role of the cysteine protease motif in intracellular processing and LifA activity, and to identify potential targets and interacting partners of the protein. Domains of LifA predicted by limited proteolysis were cloned, expressed and affinity purified. Robust assays for detecting interactions between LifA, or fragments thereof, and T lymphocytes were developed but none of the domains possessed lymphostatin activity alone or in combination. LifA was found to be cleaved within T cells, which by analogy with large clostridial toxins was hypothesised to be the result of autoproteolysis mediated by the cysteine protease domain. A C1480A substitution mutant of full-length LifA was constructed by site-directed mutagenesis to disrupt the predicted catalytic triad of the cysteine protease domain. The C1480A substitution resulted in a lack of intracellular processing of LifA and impaired the ability of the protein to inhibit mitogen-stimulated proliferation of bovine T cells, without obvious changes to the biophysical properties of the protein. LifA processing was also found to require endosomal acidification using the inhibitors bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine. Shotgun mass spectrometry and protein pull-downs were used to identify potential targets of LifA activity and interacting partners. Relatively few candidate proteins were identified and these were generally not consistently observed between repeated experiments. Based on analysis of signal transduction pathways perturbed by LifA, I explored if the cellular kinase Akt may be targeted by LifA directly or indirectly. Akt is known to control T cell proliferation and to be regulated by phosphorylation and GlcNAcylation. S473 phosphorylation of Akt in mitogen-stimulated T cells was inhibited by LifA in a manner dependent on the DXD and cysteine protease motifs, but O-GlcNAcylation of Akt was not detected. This inhibition only occurred in cells treated with LifA before mitogenic stimulation. Infection of T cells with an enteropathogenic E. coli strain inhibited Akt phosphorylation in a manner dependent on the Type III secretion system but not LifA or a homologous LifA-like protein. Taken together, this study advances our understanding of the mode of action of a key virulence factor of pathogenic E. coli and, in particular, identifies a key role for a cysteine protease motif in intracellular processing of the protein and lymphostatin activity

Activity of lymphostatin, a lymphocyte inhibitory virulence factor of pathogenic Escherichia coli, is dependent on a cysteine protease motif

Lymphostatin (LifA) is a 366 kDa protein expressed by attaching & effacing Escherichia coli. It plays an important role in intestinal colonisation and inhibits the mitogen- and antigen-stimulated proliferation of lymphocytes and the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines. LifA exhibits N-terminal homology with the glycosyltransferase domain of large clostridial toxins (LCTs). A DTD motif within this region is required for lymphostatin activity and binding of the sugar donor uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine. As with LCTs, LifA also contains a cysteine protease motif (C1480, H1581, D1596) that is widely conserved within the YopT-like superfamily of cysteine proteases. By analogy with LCTs, we hypothesised that the CHD motif may be required for intracellular processing of the protein to release the catalytic N-terminal domain after uptake and low pH-stimulated membrane insertion of LifA within endosomes. Here, we created and validated a C1480A substitution mutant in LifA from enteropathogenic E. coli strain E2348/69. The purified protein was structurally near-identical to the wild-type protein. In bovine T lymphocytes treated with wild-type LifA, a putative cleavage product of approximately 140 kDa was detected. Appearance of the putative cleavage product was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine, which inhibit endosome acidification. The cleavage product was not observed in cells treated with the C1480A mutant of LifA. Lymphocyte inhibitory activity of the purified C1480A protein was significantly impaired. The data indicate that an intact cysteine protease motif is required for cleavage of lymphostatin and its activity against T cells

Phylogenetic relationship and virulence composition of Escherichia coli O26:H11 cattle and human strain collections in Scotland; 2002-2020

O26 is the commonest non-O157 Shiga toxin (stx)-producing Escherichia coli serogroup reported in human infections worldwide. Ruminants, particularly cattle, are the primary reservoir source for human infection. In this study, we compared the whole genomes and virulence profiles of O26:H11 strains (n = 99) isolated from Scottish cattle with strains from human infections (n = 96) held by the Scottish Escherichia coli O157/STEC Reference Laboratory, isolated between 2002 and 2020. Bovine strains were from two national cross-sectional cattle surveys conducted between 2002–2004 and 2014–2015. A maximum likelihood phylogeny was constructed from a core-genome alignment with the O26:H11 strain 11368 reference genome. Genomes were screened against a panel of 2,710 virulence genes using the Virulence Finder Database. All stx-positive bovine O26:H11 strains belonged to the ST21 lineage and were grouped into three main clades. Bovine and human source strains were interspersed, and the stx subtype was relatively clade-specific. Highly pathogenic stx2a-only ST21 strains were identified in two herds sampled in the second cattle survey and in human clinical infections from 2010 onwards. The closest pairwise distance was 9 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between Scottish bovine and human strains and 69 SNPs between the two cattle surveys. Bovine O26:H11 was compared to public EnteroBase ST29 complex genomes and found to have the greatest commonality with O26:H11 strains from the rest of the UK, followed by France, Italy, and Belgium. Virulence profiles of stx-positive bovine and human strains were similar but more conserved for the stx2a subtype. O26:H11 stx-negative ST29 (n = 17) and ST396 strains (n = 5) were isolated from 19 cattle herds; all were eae-positive, and 10 of these herds yielded strains positive for ehxA, espK, and Z2098, gene markers suggestive of enterohaemorrhagic potential. There was a significant association (p < 0.001) between nucleotide sequence percent identity and stx status for the bacteriophage insertion site genes yecE for stx2 and yehV for stx1. Acquired antimicrobial resistance genes were identified in silico in 12.1% of bovine and 17.7% of human O26:H11 strains, with sul2, tet, aph(3″), and aph(6″) being most common. This study describes the diversity among Scottish bovine O26:H11 strains and investigates their relationship to human STEC infections