Justifying additive-noise-model based causal discovery via algorithmic information theory

A recent method for causal discovery is in many cases able to infer whether X causes Y or Y causes X for just two observed variables X and Y. It is based on the observation that there exist (non-Gaussian) joint distributions P(X,Y) for which Y may be written as a function of X up to an additive noise term that is independent of X and no such model exists from Y to X. Whenever this is the case, one prefers the causal model X--> Y. Here we justify this method by showing that the causal hypothesis Y--> X is unlikely because it requires a specific tuning between P(Y) and P(X|Y) to generate a distribution that admits an additive noise model from X to Y. To quantify the amount of tuning required we derive lower bounds on the algorithmic information shared by P(Y) and P(X|Y). This way, our justification is consistent with recent approaches for using algorithmic information theory for causal reasoning. We extend this principle to the case where P(X,Y) almost admits an additive noise model. Our results suggest that the above conclusion is more reliable if the complexity of P(Y) is high.Comment: 17 pages, 1 Figur

Information-theoretic inference of common ancestors

A directed acyclic graph (DAG) partially represents the conditional independence structure among observations of a system if the local Markov condition holds, that is, if every variable is independent of its non-descendants given its parents. In general, there is a whole class of DAGs that represents a given set of conditional independence relations. We are interested in properties of this class that can be derived from observations of a subsystem only. To this end, we prove an information theoretic inequality that allows for the inference of common ancestors of observed parts in any DAG representing some unknown larger system. More explicitly, we show that a large amount of dependence in terms of mutual information among the observations implies the existence of a common ancestor that distributes this information. Within the causal interpretation of DAGs our result can be seen as a quantitative extension of Reichenbach's Principle of Common Cause to more than two variables. Our conclusions are valid also for non-probabilistic observations such as binary strings, since we state the proof for an axiomatized notion of mutual information that includes the stochastic as well as the algorithmic version.Comment: 18 pages, 4 figure

Justifying Information-Geometric Causal Inference

Information Geometric Causal Inference (IGCI) is a new approach to distinguish between cause and effect for two variables. It is based on an independence assumption between input distribution and causal mechanism that can be phrased in terms of orthogonality in information space. We describe two intuitive reinterpretations of this approach that makes IGCI more accessible to a broader audience. Moreover, we show that the described independence is related to the hypothesis that unsupervised learning and semi-supervised learning only works for predicting the cause from the effect and not vice versa.Comment: 3 Figure

A Quantum Broadcasting Problem in Classical Low Power Signal Processing

We pose a problem called ``broadcasting Holevo-information'': given an unknown state taken from an ensemble, the task is to generate a bipartite state transfering as much Holevo-information to each copy as possible. We argue that upper bounds on the average information over both copies imply lower bounds on the quantum capacity required to send the ensemble without information loss. This is because a channel with zero quantum capacity has a unitary extension transfering at least as much information to its environment as it transfers to the output. For an ensemble being the time orbit of a pure state under a Hamiltonian evolution, we derive such a bound on the required quantum capacity in terms of properties of the input and output energy distribution. Moreover, we discuss relations between the broadcasting problem and entropy power inequalities. The broadcasting problem arises when a signal should be transmitted by a time-invariant device such that the outgoing signal has the same timing information as the incoming signal had. Based on previous results we argue that this establishes a link between quantum information theory and the theory of low power computing because the loss of timing information implies loss of free energy.Comment: 28 pages, late

Biodiversity promotes ecosystem functioning despite environmental change

Three decades of research have demonstrated that biodiversity can promote the functioning of ecosystems. Yet, it is unclear whether the positive effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning will persist under various types of global environmental change drivers. We conducted a meta-analysis of 46 factorial experiments manipulating both species richness and the environment to test how global change drivers (i.e. warming, drought, nutrient addition or CO2 enrichment) modulated the effect of biodiversity on multiple ecosystem functions across three taxonomic groups (microbes, phytoplankton and plants). We found that biodiversity increased ecosystem functioning in both ambient and manipulated environments, but often not to the same degree. In particular, biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning were larger in stressful environments induced by global change drivers, indicating that high-diversity communities were more resistant to environmental change. Using a subset of studies, we also found that the positive effects of biodiversity were mainly driven by interspecific complementarity and that these effects increased over time in both ambient and manipulated environments. Our findings support biodiversity conservation as a key strategy for sustainable ecosystem management in the face of global environmental change

Clarification of the type specimens of Angraecum parcum Schltr. and Angraecum stolzii Schltr.

Confusion about type status of the collections Stolz 640 and Stolz 2508, both described by Schlechter, have arisen because the epithet stolzii was used by Schlechter himself on labels of the type collection of Angraceum parcum Schltr. I here clarify which are the type collections of A. parcum Schltr. and A. stolzii Schltr. and designate lectotypes for these species

Stelis stephanii B. Steud. 2011, sp. nov.

Stelis stephanii B.Steud., sp. nov. (Fig. 1 & Fig. 2) Inter species Stelis sectionis Stelidis, habitu parvo caespitoso, foliis longi-petiolatis, racemo multifloro cum puncis negris, sepalis ellipticis cum punctis negris, et labello triangulari. Holotype: — BOLIVIA. South Yungas: Chulumani, 16° 18,539`S, 67° 32,888`W, 2180 m, S.Beck 30762 (LPB!). Plant large, epiphytic, caespitose, roots slender. Ramicauls erect, stout, 5–8 cm, enclosed by a loose, tubular sheath, and another at the base. Leaf erect, elliptical, 6–11 cm, 1.6–2.5 cm wide. Inflorescence an erect, flexous and curved raceme, several flowered in the upper half, 15–20 cm long and black dotted. Sepals yellowish to greenish with black dots at the dorsal side, some of them translucent to the ventral side, haired at the outer margins of the ventral side, 3-veined, 2.5–3.0 mm long, 1.8–2.2 mm wide. Petals yellowish to greenish, 1-veined, 1 mm wide. Lip thick, triangulate, papillous, 1 mm long, 0.8 mm wide. Colomn stout, 0.8 mm long, 0.7 mm wide, stigma bilobed. Distribution:—Known only from the type locality at Chulumani, Bolivia, elevation about 2150–2200 m in highly disturbed, montane forest. Several individuals were observed in the canopy of different tree species. Etymology:—The epithet honours Dr. Stephan Beck who collected the specimen of this new species and assisted me many times with logistical and administative support in Bolivia. Discussion:— Stelis stephanii belongs to section Stelis, which is characterised by the widely spreading and equally sized sepals (Luer 2009). It may be related to the species complex of Stelis argentata Lindley (1842: 64), which is documented from Bolivia as well. Stelis stephanii differs from species of this complex in the triangulate lip and the partially pubescent sepals. The lip of Stelis stephanii is unusually long and papillous, in the complex of Stelis argentata the lip is transversely subquadrate (Luer 2009). In the complex of Stelis argentata the hairs are on the whole sepal or absent and shorter than those of Stelis stephanii which are there only on the margins of the sepals. With its total height of about 14–20 cm, the new species is relatively large for the genus Stelis, but in some species of Stelis size can vary markedly.Published as part of Steudel, Bastian, 2011, A new species of Stelis (Pleurothallidinae, Orchidaceae) from South Yungas, Bolivia, pp. 49-52 in Phytotaxa 38 on pages 49-51, DOI: 10.11646/phytotaxa.38.1.7, http://zenodo.org/record/489463

Information-Theoretic Inference of Common Ancestors

A directed acyclic graph (DAG) partially represents the conditional independence structure among observations of a system if the local Markov condition holds, that is if every variable is independent of its non-descendants given its parents. In general, there is a whole class of DAGs that represents a given set of conditional independence relations. We are interested in properties of this class that can be derived from observations of a subsystem only. To this end, we prove an information-theoretic inequality that allows for the inference of common ancestors of observed parts in any DAG representing some unknown larger system. More explicitly, we show that a large amount of dependence in terms of mutual information among the observations implies the existence of a common ancestor that distributes this information. Within the causal interpretation of DAGs, our result can be seen as a quantitative extension of Reichenbach’s principle of common cause to more than two variables. Our conclusions are valid also for non-probabilistic observations, such as binary strings, since we state the proof for an axiomatized notion of “mutual information” that includes the stochastic as well as the algorithmic version

Causal Markov condition for submodular information measures

The causal Markov condition (CMC) is a postulate that links observations to causality. It describes the conditional independences among the observations that are entailed by a causal hypothesis in terms of a directed acyclic graph. In the conventional setting, the observations are random variables and the independence is a statistical one, i.e., the information content of observations is measured in terms of Shannon entropy. We formulate a generalized CMC for any kind of observations on which independence is defined via an arbitrary submodular information measure. Recently, this has been discussed for observations in terms of binary strings where information is understood in the sense of Kolmogorov complexity. Our approach enables us to find computable alternatives to Kolmogorov complexity, e.g., the length of a text after applying existing data compression schemes. We show that our CMC is justified if one restricts the attention to a class of causal mechanisms that is adapted to the respective information measure. Our justification is similar to deriving the statistical CMC from functional models of causality, where every variable is a deterministic function of its observed causes and an unobserved noise term. Our experiments on real data demonstrate the performance of compression based causal inference.