Teaching Derived Relational Responding to Young Children

Although it employs a relatively small array of behavioral concepts and processes, Relational Frame Theory provides an account of how some of the most complex verbal events can be understood behaviorally and may be established systematically. In the current paper, the findings from a research agenda that has clear and widespread implications for educational practice are summarized. This exciting research initiative consists of studies in which both simple and relatively complex forms of derived relational responding have been targeted for assessment and remediation using interventions driven by Relational Frame Theory. A key theme running throughout the diverse content covered in this research program is the role of a basic understanding of relational responding in the teaching of critical cognitive or verbal repertoires in children. The article argues that identifying the core relational units involved in these cognitive skills, and targeting their fluid and flexible development with appropriate training, will lead to significant improvements in the methods used in many educational settings

Understanding Perspective-taking, False Belief, and Deception from a Behavioural Perspective

Perspective-taking, understanding false belief and deception are considered by mainstream psychologists to be critical for competent cognitive development. Theory of Mind researchers, in particular, have devoted considerable attention to these cognitive domains. By contrast, these phenomena have traditionally attracted little or no interest from behavioural psychologists. This situation, however, has begun to change in recent years with behavioural researchers working under the rubric of Relational Frame Theory devoting considerable effort to empirical analyses of these cognitive abilities. The current paper reviews some of the first empirical evidence generated by the relational frame approach to perspective-taking, false belief and deception as related relational skills. The results of this work show considerable overlap with more traditional Theory of Mind findings, and thus suggest that these topics may be an important area of integration between these two disparate traditions. Additional evidence from studies in which specific relational repertoires were targeted for remediation when perspective-taking, false belief and deception were found to be absent also suggest the applicability of the relational frame interpretation of these abilities. Although much more work needs to be done, current empirical evidence suggests that from both conceptual and applied perspectives, the relational frame approach to these phenomena may be an important and fruitful avenue for future research

A Relational Frame Account of the Development of Complex Cognitive Phenomena: Perspective-taking, False Belief Understanding, and Deception

Cognitive psychologists have devoted considerable attention to the complex skills described as perspective-taking, understanding false belief, and deception. Much of the available research on these phenomena has been driven by a conceptual approach referred to as âTheory of Mindâ. The current paper reviews the Theory of Mind account of perspectivetaking, false belief and deception in terms of the development of increasingly complex levels of understanding the informational states of the self and others. In contrast, these phenomena have attracted little interest traditionally from behavioral psychologists, and the current paper presents conceptual and empirical evidence that this is changing. Specifically, an alternative approach to these skills from a functional behavioral framework is presented in the context of Relational Frame Theory, a modern behavioral account of human language and cognition. The paper describes the relational frame approach to perspective-taking, false belief and deception, and presents several recent studies that have investigated this approach. The results of the studies indicate the potential utility of this approach and also show considerable overlap with the results of Theory of Mind research

Relational Frame Theory: Some Implications for Understanding and Treating Human Psychopathology

In the current paper, we attempt to show how both the basic and applied sciences of behavior analysis have been transformed by the modern research agenda in human language and cognition, known as Relational Frame Theory (RFT). At the level of basic process, the paper argues that the burgeoning literature on derived stimulus relations calls for a reinterpretation of complex human behavior that extends beyond a purely contingencybased analysis. Specifically, the paper aims to show how a more complete account of complex human behavior includes an analysis of relational frames, relational networks, relating relations, rules, perspective-taking, and the concept of self. According to the theory, this analysis gives rise to a new interpretation of human psychopathology that necessarily transforms the applied science of behavior therapy. The current paper is divided into three parts. In Part 1, we provide a brief summary of the integrated history of behavioral psychology and behavior therapy, including their emphases on the principles of classical and operant conditioning as the basis for an account of human psychopathology. In Part 2, the core features of RFT are presented, including the three concepts of bidirectional stimulus relations, relating relations, and rule-governance that constitute critical components of the RFT approach to human psychopathology. The paper therein attempts to illustrate, with the use of clinically relevant examples, the ways in which these concepts can be used to understand psychopathology and psychotherapy. In Part 3, RFT interpretations of three central features of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), namely acceptance, defusion, and values are provided with a view to demonstrating the utility of basic RFT concepts in the treatment of human suffering

Psychological Acceptance: Experimental Analyses and Theoretical Interpretations

There has been a recent explosion of interest in experiential avoidance as a source of human psychopathology and acceptance-based interventions as a means of combating the deleterious effects of such avoidance. Most of this work has focused on clinical outcome measures, but a small body of research has also employed experimental analogs. The first part of the current article reviews the key studies in this analog research and concludes that the results support the argument that acceptance interventions provide some possible advantages over more traditional control- or distraction-based interventions. The second part of the article provides the beginnings of a technical analysis of acceptance in terms of Relational Frame Theory, a modern behavioral approach to human language and cognition

Mismatch repair, recombination and genetic variability in Trypanosoma brucei

The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei has a complex life cycle with stages in mammalian hosts, where it is the causative agent of sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle, and in the tsetse fly vector. In order to evade the host immune system, T. brucei undergoes a process called antigenic variation in the mammalian bloodstream. In this process, a single Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) is expressed on the cell surface, acting as a protective coat. The molecular identity of the VSG coat is periodically and spontaneously changed by a number of different switching mechanisms. T. brucei is known to have conserved DNA repair pathways, including homologous recombination (HR) and mismatch repair (MMR). While the central recombination factor RAD51 and its paralogue RAD51-3 have been shown to be important, but not essential, in VSG switching, a number of other factors, including the MMR proteins MSH2 and MLH1, seem not to be involved. Work in this thesis sought to examine several aspects of MMR function in T. brucei, and concentrated on homologues of the bacterial MutS protein. The requirements for substrate length and sequence homology in T. brucei HR were studied using a DNA transformation assay. It was shown that reduction in either the length or the sequence identity of recombination substrates causes a significant reduction in the transformation efficiency of linear DNA, at least at an interstitial site. Genetic disruption of the MSH2 gene only seemed to affect HR using substrates over 100 bp in length and with 5% divergence from the target sequence; shorter sequences and sequences with either 0% or 11% mismatches apparently remained unaffected. A number of transformants from all classes of transformation retained an undisturbed copy of the target locus, hypothesised to be due to low-level trisomy within the population. In addition, and at a very low rate, distinct recombination events, resulting in observable changes in the T. brucei chromosomes, were observed. This work reveals some of the factors which influence the pathways of recombination used by T. brucei. A potential role for T. brucei homologues of the meiosis-specific MutS homologues MSH4 and MSH5 was also examined. Sequence comparisons show that these genes are present in T. brucei and the related kinetoplastids, T. cruzi and L. major. Like their orthologues in other organisms, T. brucei MSH4 and MSH5 lack a detectably functional mismatch interaction domain. Although MSH4 and MSH5 would only be expected to be required at the epimastigote life cycle stage, expression of MSH5 can be detected by northern blot in procyclic form and bloodstream stage cells. Although creating genetic knockouts of these genes was not successful, attempts were made to force expression of MSH4 and MSH5 ORFs from an ectopic locus, though this did not disrupt MMR function, nor reveal other observable phenotypes. Finally, potential variation in MMR gene sequence and MMR functions in different T. brucei strains and subspecies was investigated. Many bacterial strains, known as mutators, have mutations in MMR genes, causing impaired MMR function and therefore increased variability in the population. It has recently been reported that this phenomenon is also observed in T. cruzi. MSH2 and RAD51 nucleotide and protein sequences were compared between nine T. brucei strains, and showed extremely low levels of polymorphism. However, four T. brucei strains were found to vary in their tolerance to the DNA damaging agents MNNG, H2O2 and MMS; whether this is due to differences in MMR, another DNA repair pathway, or drug uptake, is yet to be determined

Genetics of multiple sclerosis in the Northern Isles of Scotland

Multiple Sclerosis affects around 2 million people worldwide (Kantarci and Wingerchuk, 2006; Dutta and Trapp, 2011). The disease is typified by the destruction of the central nervous system neurons’ myelin sheaths, caused by the individual’s own immune system (Hauser and Oksenberg, 2006). This destruction results in the inflammation and chronic degeneration of the CNS, causing varying symptoms including pain, fatigue, cognitive impairment and paralysis (Costelloe et al., 2008). Not only is the life expectancy of individuals with MS 10 years below that of the age-matched general population (Ragonese et al., 2008), but life quality is often severely affected from the start of disease onset (typically around 30 years of age (Hauser and Oksenberg, 2006)). There are several treatments available to aid in the relief of specific symptoms; however, the treatment is lifelong which places a burden on healthcare services. Current research looks to expand the available knowledge on the causes of MS, to improve preventative measures (such as lifestyle changes to accommodate environmental conditions) and targeted treatments (for example, focusing on the product of an MS-associated gene variant). Of particular interest to MS research are the two population isolates of Orkney and Shetland, which together make up the Northern Isles of Scotland. Shetland has 295 MS cases per 100,000 individuals, while Orkney has the highest global prevalence of MS at 402 cases per 100,000 individuals (Visser et al., 2012). Orkney, at a lower latitude than Shetland, has a significantly higher prevalence than what would be expected. Multiple theories behind the excess of MS cases in Orkney have been investigated, including vitamin D deficiency and homozygosity: neither were found to cause the high prevalence of MS. It is possible that this excess prevalence may be explained through unique genetics. This thesis sought to better understand these high rates of MS, with the aim of passing this knowledge on to the island residents of Orkney and Shetland and to contribute the findings to the wider understanding of MS. Analyses were conducted using the ORCADES and VIKING datasets. ORCADES contained 2215 individuals from the Orkney islands, including 97 MS cases (some recruited because they were cases); VIKING contained 2015 individuals from the Shetland islands, including 15 cases. First, a heritability study was conducted using GCTA to determine the SNP heritability of MS in both Orkney and Shetland and how it compared to published estimates of heritability. The SNP heritability of MS in Orkney was estimated at 0.31 (95% CI 0.13, 0.49). An estimate of SNP heritability for MS in Shetland could not be determined due to low case numbers. Second, a genome-wide association study was conducted using a combined ORCADES/VIKING dataset containing 112 cases and 4223 controls. The aim of this study was to determine if unique common MS risk variants existed in the Northern Isles. Here, 89 SNPs were identified to suggestive significance, mostly within six key regions of the genome. Within the literature, only one of these (chromosome 6 SNP rs9268154) was associated with Multiple Sclerosis. Four of the five other regions had possible functions within the immune or nervous system. However, as these did not reach genome-wide significance it is likely these results were due to chance; further investigation is needed to clarify this. Finally, a polygenic risk score study looked at the contribution of common risk variants to MS. The 127 most strongly associated MS SNPs were used to calculate risk scores in mainland Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. These risk scores were compared between controls in all three populations to determine if the Northern Isles, by chance, had higher frequencies of common risk variants and if this contributed to the excess of cases. These common risk variants explained 3% of variance in MS risk, and had an AUC score of 0.69 (95% CI 0.65, 0.74). However, no difference existed between common risk variants in the three populations, aside from one variant: rs9271069, a tag SNP for HLA-DRB1*1501. This SNP was found to have a significantly higher frequency in Orkney (RAF = 0.23, p-value = 8 x 10-13) and Shetland (RAF = 0.21, p-value = 2.3 x 10-6) than mainland Scotland (RAF = 0.17). This SNP accounted for 6 cases (95% CI 3, 8) out of 150 observed excess cases per 100,000 individuals in Shetland and 9 cases (95% CI 8, 11) of the observed 257 excess cases per 100,000 individuals in Orkney. The question of why the Northern Isles have such high rates of MS remains open. This thesis explains a small proportion of this excess. It is hoped that the findings and discussions found here will encourage dialogue within the Northern Isles and bring awareness to the genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors that contribute to MS within the islands

Deictic relational complexity and the development of deception

An empirical investigation of age-related development of the ability to deceive was conducted from the perspective of Relational Frame Theory, which, unlike the traditional approach, Theory of Mind, has been used to analyze deception in terms of the complexity of the relational responding involved. A derived relational responding– based protocol was used to compare the deception-taking skills of five different age groups. Results indicated that performances on the tasks improved as a function of age, supporting the current concept of deception as a learned relationally complex behavioral pattern. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the mainstream developmental literature on deception

Recurrent delirium over 12 months predicts dementia: results of the Delirium and Cognitive Impact in Dementia (DECIDE) study.

BACKGROUND: Delirium is common, distressing and associated with poor outcomes. Previous studies investigating the impact of delirium on cognitive outcomes have been limited by incomplete ascertainment of baseline cognition or lack of prospective delirium assessments. This study quantified the association between delirium and cognitive function over time by prospectively ascertaining delirium in a cohort aged ≥ 65 years in whom baseline cognition had previously been established. METHODS: For 12 months, we assessed participants from the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study II-Newcastle for delirium daily during hospital admissions. At 1-year, we assessed cognitive decline and dementia in those with and without delirium. We evaluated the effect of delirium (including its duration and number of episodes) on cognitive function over time, independently of baseline cognition and illness severity. RESULTS: Eighty two of 205 participants recruited developed delirium in hospital (40%). One-year outcome data were available for 173 participants: 18 had a new dementia diagnosis, 38 had died. Delirium was associated with cognitive decline (-1.8 Mini-Mental State Examination points [95% CI -3.5 to -0.2]) and an increased risk of new dementia diagnosis at follow up (OR 8.8 [95% CI 1.9-41.4]). More than one episode and more days with delirium (>5 days) were associated with worse cognitive outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Delirium increases risk of future cognitive decline and dementia, independent of illness severity and baseline cognition, with more episodes associated with worse cognitive outcomes. Given that delirium has been shown to be preventable in some cases, we propose that delirium is a potentially modifiable risk factor for dementia

Is late-life dependency increasing or not? A comparison of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Studies (CFAS)

Background: Little is known about how dependency levels have changed between generational cohorts of older people. We estimated years lived in different care states at age 65 in 1991 and 2011 and new projections of future demand for care. Methods: Two population-based studies of older people in defined geographical areas conducted two decades apart (the Cognitive Function and Ageing Studies) provided prevalence estimates of dependency in four states: high (24-hour care); medium (daily care); low (less than daily); independent. Years in each dependency state were calculated by Sullivan’s method. To project future demand, the proportions in each dependency state (by age group and sex) were applied to the 2014 England population projections. Findings: Between 1991 and 2011 there were significant increases in years lived from age 65 with low (men:1·7 years, 95%CI 1·0-2·4; women:2·4 years, 95%CI 1·8-3·1) and high dependency (men:0·9 years, 95%CI 0·2-1·7; women:1·3 years, 95%CI 0·5-2·1). The majority of men’s extra years of life were independent (36%) or with low dependency (36%) whilst for women the majority were spent with low dependency (58%), only 5% being independent. There were substantial reductions in the proportions with medium and high dependency who lived in care homes, although, if these dependency and care home proportions remain constant in the future, further population ageing will require an extra 71,000 care home places by 2025. Interpretation: On average older men now spend 2.4 years and women 3.0 years with substantial care needs (medium or high dependency), and most will live in the community. These findings have considerable implications for older people’s families who provide the majority of unpaid care, but the findings also supply valuable new information for governments and care providers planning the resources and funding required for the care of their future ageing populations