Pojavnost influence u životinja u Hrvatskoj: kratak pregled povodom 100 godina od pojave pandemije 1918.

Influenza is an important respiratory disease of human beings and different animal species caused by influenza viruses belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae, which comprises four genera (Influenzavirus A, B, C and D). In an introductory overview a brief historical review of the main pandemics of influenza A in humans worldwide is given. Spanish, Asian, Hong Kong, Russian influenza and North American swine influenza, as well as infections caused by the recently occurring influenza D virus, are briefly described. Aquatic birds are the natural reservoirs of influenza A viruses worldwide, and harbour viruses with all possible combinations of 16 haemagglutinin (HA) and 9 neuraminidase (NA) subtypes. The crossing of the species barrier by avian influenza viruses is presented. A previous review on the zoonotic nature of influenza viruses was published in Croatia in 1982. Outbreaks of equine, swine and avian influenza have been described in Croatia. HI antibodies to A/swine/Texas/4199/1998 (H3N2) were detected in dog sera. Epizootics of equine influenza caused by H7N7 and H3N8 subtypes have been known in Croatia for 80 years. Recent outbreaks showed an antigenic drift of the viruses involved. American lineage H3N8 was detected. The last serological evidence worldwide of A/equine H7N7 was reported from Croatia. New outbreaks of H3N8 were likely the result of vaccine failure. Serological examination of domestic pigs has revealed the prevalence of the H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes. Tested feral pigs were serologically positive to H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes. Recent clinical outbreaks of swine influenza caused by the H1N1 subtype were documented by immunohistochemistry, nucleic acid detection and virus isolation. Avian influenza had no impact on poultry production in Croatia until late 2005 when a highly pathogenic zoonotic avian influenza (HPAI) virus of the H5N1 subtype was detected in wild birds in eastern Croatia. The multiple introduction of the Asian HPAI H5N1 virus into Croatia by wild birds was documented. From October 2016 until March 2017, 19 outbreaks of HPAI H5N8 were detected in Croatia, 16 in wild birds and three in poultry. The new H5N5 reassortant virus was introduced from Asia. Avian influenza virus of H16 subtype was isolated from black-headed gulls.Influenca je zarazna bolest ljudi i različitih životinjskih vrsta prouzročena virusima influence porodice Orthomyxoviridae, koji su svrstani u 4 roda: Influenzavirus A, B, C i D. Uvodno je iznesen kratak povijesni prikaz najvažnijih pandemija influence A u ljudi u 20. stoljeću: španjolske, azijske, hongkongške, ruske i sjeverno-američke (svinjske) gripe te infekcije prouzročene novim influenca D virusom. Vodene ptice prirodni su rezervoar virusa influence A diljem svijeta. U njih su dokazane sve antigenske kombinacije od mogućih 16 podtipova hemaglutinina i 9 podtipova neuraminidaze. Opisan je međuvrsni prijenos ptičjih virusa influence o čemu se u nas može naći podosta rasprava u znanstvenoj i stručnoj literaturi. U Hrvatskoj su u prošlosti opisane epizootije influence konja, svinja i ptica, a protutijela inhibicije hemaglutinacije za A/swine/Texas/4199/1998 (H3N2) dokazana su u serumu pasa. Nakon prvog opisa prije 80 godina, česta su izvješća o pojavi epizootija influence konja prouzročene podtipovima H7N7 i H3N8. U novijim epizootijama dokazano je antigensko skretanje uzročnika s naglaskom da izdvojeni podtip H3N8 pripada američkoj liniji. Već duže vrijeme nema dokaza o aktivnosti podtipa H7N7 u svijetu. Nalaz specifičnih protutijela za taj podtip posljednji put je dokazan upravo u Hrvatskoj. Smatra se da se pojava novih epizootija influence konja uzrokovanih podtipom H3N8 može pripisati neodgovarajućem antigenskom sastavu rabljenih cjepiva. Na osnovi seroloških istraživanja influence u domaćih svinja pokazalo se da u njihovoj populaciji kolaju podtipovi H1N1 i H3N2. Serološki je utvrđeno da ti podtipovi kolaju i u populaciji divljih svinja u Hrvatskoj. U najnovije doba opisana je klinička slika influence svinja uzrokovane podtipom H1N1 u nekim mnoštvenim uzgojima u Hrvatskoj. Osebujan klinički nalaz potkrijepljen je pozitivnim nalazom pretragom RT-PCR-om, pozitivnim imunohistokemijskim nalazom u tkivu plućiju zahvaćenih svinja te izdvajanjem virusa na staničnoj kulturi MDCK. Influenca ptica nije imala nekog utjecaja na peradarsku proizvodnju u Hrvatskoj sve do 2005. godine, kada je zoonotski visoko patogeni virus ptičje gripe podtip H5N1 bio utvrđen u divljih ptica na području Istočne Hrvatske. Nakon toga ustanovljena je višestruka pojava azijskog visokopatogenog podtipa H5N1 u divljih ptica u Hrvatskoj. Od listopada 2016. do ožujka 2017. godine zabilježeno je 19 pojava visokopatogenog podtipa H5N8, od čega 16 u divljih ptica, a tri u domaće peradi. Nova presloženica H5N5 u Hrvatsku je bila prenesena iz Azije. U riječnog galeba u okolici Zagreba dokazan je podtip H16

Emergent Zoonoses Caused by Coronaviruses

Emergentne zoonoze sve su učestalije, a ovaj je trend uvjetovan razvojem današnjeg društva. U najvažnije čimbenike emergencije pripadaju socio-demografske promjene, klimatske promjene te čovjekov utjecaj na okoliš, kao i prilagodba mikroorganizama. Tipičan je primjer emergentnih zoonoza pojava emergentnih koronavirusa koji su po gotovo identičnim obrascima u posljednja dva desetljeća uzrokovali SARS, MERS i COVID-19. Koronavirusi uzrokuju bolesti u različitih vrsta životinja i ljudi te su skloni mutacijama. Zbog toga je njihov međuvrsni prijenos stalna opasnost što se i potvrdilo u nastanku ovih bolesti. Štoviše, za sva tri uzročnika rezervoari su bili šišmiši, te su se preko neke životinjske vrste, koja je imala ulogu međudomaćina, prilagodili i uspješno prenijeli na čovjeka. Nakon toga su se nastavili širiti među ljudima uzrokujući oboljenja s primarno respiratornim kliničkim znakovima i znatnom smrtnošću. Uz sve trenutačne mjere, koje se provode zbog suzbijanja jedne od najvećih pandemija u povijesti čovječanstva, istraživanja je potrebno usmjeriti u što ranije otkrivanje novih potencijalnih pandemijskih virusa kako ne bismo ponovno bili nespremni na ponavljajući obrazac pojave emergentnih koronavirusa, kao i drugih zoonotskih uzročnika u budućnosti.Emergent zoonoses are appearing more and more frequently, which is the result of the development of modern society. The most important factors of their emergence include socio-demographic changes, climate change, and human impact on the environment, as well as the adaptation of microorganisms. A typical example of emergent zoonoses is the appearance of the emergent coronaviruses that have caused SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 in almost identical patterns in the last two decades. Coronaviruses cause diseases in various species of animals and humans, and are extremely prone to mutations so their interspecific transmission is a constant danger, which has been confirmed in the development of these diseases. Moreover, for all three causative agents, the reservoirs were bats, and they adapted and were successfully transmitted to humans via an animal species that acted as an intermediate host. They then continued to spread among humans, causing diseases with primarily respiratory clinical signs and substantial mortality. Alongside all the current measures being taken to control one of the largest pandemics in human history, researchers should focus on detecting new potential pandemic viruses as early as possible, so mankind can prepare better for the recurring pattern of emerging coronaviruses and other zoonotic agents in the future

Emergent Zoonoses Caused by Coronaviruses

Emergentne zoonoze sve su učestalije, a ovaj je trend uvjetovan razvojem današnjeg društva. U najvažnije čimbenike emergencije pripadaju socio-demografske promjene, klimatske promjene te čovjekov utjecaj na okoliš, kao i prilagodba mikroorganizama. Tipičan je primjer emergentnih zoonoza pojava emergentnih koronavirusa koji su po gotovo identičnim obrascima u posljednja dva desetljeća uzrokovali SARS, MERS i COVID-19. Koronavirusi uzrokuju bolesti u različitih vrsta životinja i ljudi te su skloni mutacijama. Zbog toga je njihov međuvrsni prijenos stalna opasnost što se i potvrdilo u nastanku ovih bolesti. Štoviše, za sva tri uzročnika rezervoari su bili šišmiši, te su se preko neke životinjske vrste, koja je imala ulogu međudomaćina, prilagodili i uspješno prenijeli na čovjeka. Nakon toga su se nastavili širiti među ljudima uzrokujući oboljenja s primarno respiratornim kliničkim znakovima i znatnom smrtnošću. Uz sve trenutačne mjere, koje se provode zbog suzbijanja jedne od najvećih pandemija u povijesti čovječanstva, istraživanja je potrebno usmjeriti u što ranije otkrivanje novih potencijalnih pandemijskih virusa kako ne bismo ponovno bili nespremni na ponavljajući obrazac pojave emergentnih koronavirusa, kao i drugih zoonotskih uzročnika u budućnosti.Emergent zoonoses are appearing more and more frequently, which is the result of the development of modern society. The most important factors of their emergence include socio-demographic changes, climate change, and human impact on the environment, as well as the adaptation of microorganisms. A typical example of emergent zoonoses is the appearance of the emergent coronaviruses that have caused SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 in almost identical patterns in the last two decades. Coronaviruses cause diseases in various species of animals and humans, and are extremely prone to mutations so their interspecific transmission is a constant danger, which has been confirmed in the development of these diseases. Moreover, for all three causative agents, the reservoirs were bats, and they adapted and were successfully transmitted to humans via an animal species that acted as an intermediate host. They then continued to spread among humans, causing diseases with primarily respiratory clinical signs and substantial mortality. Alongside all the current measures being taken to control one of the largest pandemics in human history, researchers should focus on detecting new potential pandemic viruses as early as possible, so mankind can prepare better for the recurring pattern of emerging coronaviruses and other zoonotic agents in the future

Epizootiological Factors of Canine Respiratory Coronavirus Infection in Croatia

Virus psećeg respiratornog koronavirusa (engl. Canine respiratory coronavirus, CRCoV), iz porodice betakoronavirusa, opisan je diljem svijeta i jedan je od uzročnika iz kompleksa psećih zaraznih respiratornih bolesti (engl. Canine infectious respiratory disease complex, CIRDC). Virus se širi izlučevinama dišnog sustava, a brzom širenju pridonose mjesta na kojima se nalazi mnogo pasa, poput skloništa za životinje i izložbi pasa. U ovom su istraživanju pretraženi obrisci nosa i ždrijela 258 pasa, od kojih je 68 imalo kliničke znakove bolesti dišnog sustava. Od 258 pasa, njih 88 bilo je iz skloništa za nezbrinute životinje, dok su ostali bili vlasnički psi. Za dokazivanje prisutnosti uzročnika u pretraživanom materijalu primijenjena je molekularna metoda lančane reakcije polimerazom s obrnutom transkripcijom (engl. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, RT-PCR). Virus CRCoV dokazan je u 3,87 % pretraživanih pasa. Infekcija je bila znatno češća u pasa iz skloništa za nezbrinute životinje u odnosu na vlasničke pse, dok spol i dob nisu znatnije utjecali na rezultate pretrage. CRCoV češće je bio dokazan u pasa bez kliničkih znakova bolesti dišnog sustava što bi moglo upućivati na to da CRCoV nije važan kao samostalan uzročnik dišnih bolesti pasa odnosno CIRDC-a.Canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV) from the beta-coronavirus family, has been described worldwide and is most commonly associated with the early stage of CIRDC (Canine infectious respiratory disease complex). The main CRCoV multiplication site is the respiratory system, so it is assumed that the virus spreads through the excretions of the respiratory tract. Places with a large number of dogs, such as animal shelters, dog shows and similar, contribute to the spread of the virus. Nasal and pharyngeal swabs of 258 dogs were screened during this study. Amongst them, 68 had clinical signs of respiratory disease. Out of 258 dogs, 88 of them were from shelters for neglected animals, while the rest belonged to private owner. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to confirm the presence of CRCoV. CRCoV was detected in 3.87% of the examined dogs. There was a significantly higher rate of infection in dogs from the animal shelters compared to privately owned dogs, while gender and age did not have a significant influence on RT-PCR test results. Interestingly, CRCoV was detected more frequently in dogs without clinical signs of respiratory disease, which leads to the conclusion that CRCoV is not significant as an independent cause of respiratory diseases in dogs, or CIRDC

Animal role in the COVID-19 pandemic

Prvi slučajevi oboljenja ljudi od bolesti COVID-19 zabilježeni su u prosincu 2019. u Kini, otkud se iznimnom brzinom proširila po cijelom svijetu. Ovu, treću po redu emergentnu koronavirusnu infekciju, uzrokovao je novi SARS-CoV-2 virus, koji u pojedinih oboljelih osoba uzrokuje teški akutni respiratorni sindrom. Dosadašnjim je istraživanjima otkriveno moguće životinjsko podrijetlo SARS-CoV-2, pri čemu se zasad šišmiši smatraju njegovim prirodnim rezervoarima, a malajski ljuskavci međudomaćinima. Dok su, radi boljeg razumijevanja i uspješnije kontrole širenja bolesti COVID-19, provedene pokusne infekcije domaćih i divljih životinja, u nekih su vrsta dokazane i u prirodnim uvjetima. Prirodne infekcije zabilježene su u pasa, mačaka, tigrova, lavova i krznaša iz porodice kuna, koji su bili u kontaktu sa SARS-CoV-2 pozitivnim osobama. Obrnuti prijenos uzročnika, sa zaraženih životinja na ljude, dosad je jedino zabilježen na farmama intenzivnog uzgoja američkih vidrica. U svrhu boljeg shvaćanja patogeneze uzročnika ove bolesti te istraživanja lijekova i cjepiva provedene su brojne pokusne infekcije na životinjskim modelima, od kojih su se najprikladnijima pokazali afrički tvorovi, rezus makakiji i hrčci. Cilj ovog rada bio je objediniti najvažnije do sada poznate podatke o potencijalnom podrijetlu SARS-CoV-2, njegovu prijenosu na ljude te dokazanim infekcijama u životinja kao i njihovu značenju u epidemiologiji ove bolesti.The first cases of human disease from COVID-19 were recorded in December 2019 in China, from where it spread rapidly around the world. COVID-19, the third emerging coronavirus infection in humans, is caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 virus, which can cause a severe acute respiratory syndrome in some infected individuals. Previous research has revealed the possible animal origin of SARS-CoV-2, with bats considered as natural reservoirs and pangolins as intermediate hosts. To better understand COVID-19 and more successfully control the spread, domestic and wild animals have been infected in experimental conditions. On the other hand, in some species, infections have been recorded in field conditions. Natural infections have been reported in dogs, cats, tigers, lions, and minks, who have been in contact with SARS-CoV-2 positive humans. The reverse transmission of the pathogen, from infected animals to humans, has only been recorded on intensive mink farms. To better understand the pathogenesis of this disease’s causative agent, drugs and vaccine trials, some experimental infections were performed on animal models, of which ferrets, rhesus macaques, and hamsters proved to be the most suitable. This article aimed to consolidate known data on the potential origin of SARS-CoV-2, its transmission to humans, infections in animals, and their significance in the epidemiology of COVID-19

Eliminacija klasične bjesnoće U Hrvatskoj - povijesni pregled

Rabies is an ancient disease, known worldwide for a thousand years. Nowadays, vast areas of Western and Central Europe have been freed from rabies. To mark the expectation that Croatia will be offi- cially declared free of classical terrestrial rabies by 2020, this paper was written to present a historical overview of the epidemiological characteristics of rabies in Croatia, based on literature data. Rabies in humans and animals was described in the 19th century on the Croatian territory as a significant public health problem. It caused considerable human and animal death. One of the oldest report of rabies in Croatia is dated in 1783, when two people from the city of Šibenik were bitten by a rabid cat and a rabid dog. Epidemics of rabies that were spread by packs of stray dogs prompted the state authorities in the second half of the 19th century to control the movements of these dogs. The first announce- ment of taxes on dogs in Croatia was recorded in 1857. However, it was introduced as early as January 1st, 1867. The first campaign of preventive dog vaccination by a phenol vaccine prepared from virus fixé, was performed in 1933. Dog vaccination and strict control measures resulted in the reduction of dog-mediated rabies cases to zero in the whole of Croatia in 1967. Ten years later, the first cases of sylvatic rabies in Croatia were detected in three foxes. By the end of 1986 rabies was found in the whole territory of Croatia apart from Dubrovnik and the islands. Introduction of oral vaccination of foxes throughout the whole Croatian territory in 2011, resulted in the rapid decrease of rabies cases in animals to zero in 2014. Recent studies have been focused on rabies in bats. Neutralizing antibodies against the European bat lyssavirus-1 were detected in bats which proves that the bat population in Croatia was in contact with the virus.Bjesnoća je od davnina poznata i proširena diljem svijeta. U novije doba zemlje zapadne i središnje Europe slobodne su od bjesnoće. Očekuje se da će 2020. godine i Hrvatska biti proglašena slobodnom od klasične (zemaljske) bjesnoće pa je taj događaj bio poticaj za pisanje ovog preglednog članka, koji je napisan sa svrhom da se pruži opširan prikaz zapisa, znanstvenih i stručnih članaka objavljenih o bjesnoći u Hrvatskoj. Bjesnoća je u 19. stoljeću predstavljala značajan javnozdravstveni problem. Bila je čest uzrok neizbježne smrti čovjeka i uginuća životinja. Jedan od najstarijih opisa bjesnoće u ljudi ugriženih od bijesnog psa i bijesne mačke na području grada Šibenika objavljen je 1783. Epizootije bjesnoće među psima lutalicama prinudile su državne vlasti u drugoj polovici 19. stoljeća da donesu kontrolne mjere o kretanju takvih pasa. Godine 1857. najavljeno je uvođenje poreza na pse. Uz odredbe o nošenju pasjih markica taj je porez uveden tek 1867. Prvo opširno cijepljenje pasa fenolnim cjepivom pripravljenim od “virusa fixe” provedeno je 1933. godine. Cijepljenje i stroge kontrolne mjere dovele su postupno da smanjenja broja bijesnih pasa i do iskorjenjivanja urbane bjesnoće 1967. godine. Deset godina kasnije u Hrvatskoj su se u lisica pojavili prvi slučajevi silvatične bjesnoće. Do 1986. silvatična bjesnoća zahvatila je sve krajeve Hrvatske osim dubrovačkog područja i otoka. Sus- tavno oralno cijepljenje lisica protiv bjesnoće započelo je 2011. godine, a posljednji slučaj bjesnoće u lisica zabilježen je 2014. godine. Nova istraživanja usredotočena su na bjesnoću u šišmiša, a publikacija iz 2018. godine iznosi da su neutralizacijska protutijela dokazana u šišmiša iz hrvatskih špilja