Community Colleges in the 21st Century: Challenges and Opportunities

Community colleges account for a surprisingly large share of American higher education. Nearly one half of all postsecondary undergraduates in fall 1997 were enrolled in community colleges (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a), and over the span of any given year, more for-credit undergraduate students enroll in community colleges than in baccalaureate-granting institutions. Community colleges have large and growing enrollments in non-credit courses as well. Moreover, the types of students who enroll in community colleges— first-generation or those from low socioeconomic backgrounds (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a)— are precisely the ones who are of most concern to scholars and policymakers. But after several decades of growth, community colleges now face a particularly challenging environment. Changes in pedagogic and production technology, state funding policy, the expectations of students, parents, and policymakers, demographic trends; and the growth of new types of educational institutions and providers are potentially altering the role of community colleges within the wider landscape of higher education

Crystallization of the Wahnstr\"om Binary Lennard-Jones Liquid

We report observation of crystallization of the glass-forming binary Lennard-Jones liquid first used by Wahnstr\"om [G. Wahnstr\"om, Phys. Rev. A 44, 3752 (1991)]. Molecular dynamics simulations of the metastable liquid on a timescale of microseconds were performed. The liquid crystallized spontaneously. The crystal structure was identified as MgZn_2. Formation of transient crystallites is observed in the liquid. The crystallization is investigate at different temperatures and compositions. At high temperature the rate of crystallite formation is the limiting factor, while at low temperature the limiting factor is growth rate. The melting temperature of the crystal is estimated to be T_m=0.93 at rho=0.82. The maximum crystallization rate of the A_2B composition is T=0.60+/-0.02.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures; corrected typo

When College Students Start Behind

Almost two thirds of students who enter community colleges every year are judged to be academically not ready to engage in college-level coursework. In order to enroll, these students typically must take one or more “remedial” or “developmental” math or English courses that will not count toward their college degree. The bulk of the evidence, however, suggests that the $4 billion annual investment in services to help underprepared students is having little positive impact on the success of those students in community colleges. This report for The Century Foundation's College Completion Series reviews that research, describes findings from studies on four types of reforms underway at various colleges, and concludes with the argument that a wholesale redesign of the student experience at community colleges is needed to make a real difference in the outcomes of underprepared students

The Labor Market Returns to Sub-Baccalaureate College: A Review

This paper reviews recent evidence on the labor market returns to credit accumulation, certificates, and associate degrees from community colleges. Evidence is collated from estimates of earnings gaps across college students using large-scale, statewide administrative datasets from eight states. Six of these states were partners of the Center for Analysis of Postsecondary Education and Employment (CAPSEE), a research center funded by the Institute of Education Sciences of the U.S. Department of Education. CAPSEE researchers conducted extensive analyses of education and earnings in these states. Findings from these studies affirm a “CAPSEE consensus” with three main results and two key features. For associate degrees, this review affirms that completing an associate degree yields strongly positive, persistent, and consistent earnings gains: studies show that completing an associate degree yields on average approximately $4,640–$7,160 per annum in extra earnings compared to entering college but not completing an award. For certificates, the evidence shows positive but modest returns and that these returns may fade out within a few years post-college. For non-completers, there is evidence that earning more credits is associated with higher earnings. Generally, the results establish two main features. First, increments of college lead to higher earnings, but with returns that are heterogeneous by field of study. Second, the evidence is strongly suggestive that returns to college are robust to macroeconomic trends

Model Specifications for Estimating Labor Market Returns to Associate Degrees: How Robust Are Fixed Effects Estimates?

Recently, studies have adopted fixed effects modeling to identify the returns to college. This method has the advantage over ordinary least squares estimates in that unobservable, individual-level characteristics that may bias the estimated returns are differenced out. But the method requires extensive longitudinal data and involves complex specifications, raising the possibility that results are sensitive either to sample restrictions or to alternative specifications. Also, the extra requirements might not be justified if results from fixed effects models are broadly similar to those from conventional ordinary least squares models. In this paper the authors review results from fixed effects models of the earnings gains from completing an associate degree relative to non-completion for community college students. The authors examine both sampling restrictions and specification issues. Results are sensitive to assumptions about missing earnings data and to how time trend specifications are modeled. However, the authors find no substantively meaningful differences between estimates using fixed effects models and ordinary least squares methods. A main benefit of fixed effects models—controlling for unobservable student characteristics—should be weighed against the difficulty in interpreting coefficients and more intensive data requirements. On the other hand, a distinct advantage of fixed effects models is that they allow for analysis of earning profiles over the period from before to after college. Given the large fluctuations in earnings over this period, this advantage may be significant in yielding evidence on the full returns to college

Stackable Credentials: Awards for the Future?

Stackable credentials—sequential postsecondary awards that allow individuals to progress on a career path—can enhance the labor market prospects of middle-skill workers. In light of recent labor market changes, these credentials may represent an important buffer against job displacement. However, very little evidence exists as to what constitutes a stackable credential and how many persons have obtained them. The authors distinguish three types of stacking—progression, supplemental, and independent. Using national, survey, and college-system-level datasets, the authors estimate that between 3 and 5 percent of the college-educated population have stackable credentials. However, there are several substantial empirical challenges in identifying stackable credentials related to the ordering of awards and to the degree of skill complementarity across awards. Significantly, the authors find that general vocational awards—earned at any institution and typically not credit-bearing—are often conflated with stackable certificates. The incidence of these awards is far greater than of stackable credentials. A review of the evidence shows that certificates convey modestly positive gains in earnings, but there is no evidence that stacking yields earnings gains. Finally, despite frequent changes in skills needs across the economy, the authors identify barriers to the expansion of stackable credentials

The Impact of Occupational Licensing on Labor Market Outcomes of College-Educated Workers

More than one third of college-educated workers have a license that provides the right to practice a particular occupation. In contrast to certificates, these licenses—serving either as a productivity signal or acting as a restrictive practice—are associated with significantly higher earnings. Thus, it is possible that some part of the returns to college are in fact returns to licensing. In this paper, the authors identify the effects of licenses on a set of labor market outcomes for the college-educated workforce using newly available national Current Population Survey data merged with U.S. Department of Labor. The results show significant discrepancies between individual self-reported licensing rates and state-mandated licensing requirements across occupations. Findings indicate significant advantages from licensing in terms of earnings and labor market participation (hours worked). Moreover, controlling for licensing does not significantly reduce the measured returns to college. Licenses convey economic benefits even in occupations where they are not required. In contrast to prior studies, the current study also finds that licenses reduce wage dispersion across the college-educated workforce

The Organizational Efficiency of Multiple Missions for Community Colleges

Community colleges are complex institutions serving a multitude of constituencies with dozens of programs and activities. Comprehensiveness has flourished since the 1970s, as the colleges steadily adopted more missions, and many community college advocates argue that the constant expansion of activities is a natural outcome of the community-based function of the colleges. But during the past two decades, academics and researchers have almost universally condemned the comprehensive model. Even some community college insiders have suggested that these institutions cannot accomplish their goals by trying to be all things to all people. Despite this backdrop of criticism, the accretion of activities continues unabated. The list of community college missions now goes well beyond the core degree-granting programs. Activities now include developmental education, adult basic education, English as a second language, education and training for welfare recipients and others facing barriers to employment, customized training for specific companies, preparation of students for industry certification exams, noncredit instruction in a bewildering plethora of areas (including purely avocational interests), small business development, and even economic forecasting

Strong pressure-energy correlations in liquids as a configuration space property: Simulations of temperature down jumps and crystallization

Computer simulations recently revealed that several liquids exhibit strong correlations between virial and potential energy equilibrium fluctuations in the NVT ensemble [U. R. Pedersen {\it et al.}, Phys. Rev. Lett. {\bf 100}, 015701 (2008)]. In order to investigate whether these correlations are present also far from equilibrium constant-volume aging following a temperature down jump from equilibrium was simulated for two strongly correlating liquids, an asymmetric dumbbell model and Lewis-Wahnstr{\"o}m OTP, as well as for SPC water that is not strongly correlating. For the two strongly correlating liquids virial and potential energy follow each other closely during the aging towards equilibrium. For SPC water, on the other hand, virial and potential energy vary with little correlation as the system ages towards equilibrium. Further proof that strong pressure-energy correlations express a configuration space property comes from monitoring pressure and energy during the crystallization (reported here for the first time) of supercooled Lewis-Wahnstr{\"o}m OTP at constant temperature

Early Momentum Metrics: Why They Matter for College Improvement

In this brief, the authors propose three measures of “early momentum” that colleges can use to gauge whether institutional reforms are improving student outcomes: 1. Credit momentum—defined as attempting at least 15 semester credits in the first term or at least 30 semester credits in the first academic year. 2. Gateway momentum—defined as taking and passing pathway-appropriate college-level math and college-level English in the first academic year. 3. Program momentum—defined as taking and passing at least nine semester credits in the student’s field of study in the first academic year. Research is beginning to show that these near-term metrics predict long-term success. In addition, these metrics focus attention on initial conditions at colleges that are particularly important for solidifying the foundation for student success. The authors discuss in detail the evidence supporting these metrics and how using early momentum metrics can help colleges reframe and focus reform efforts in positive ways