LTR Retrotransposons in Fungi

Transposable elements with long terminal direct repeats (LTR TEs) are one of the best studied groups of mobile elements. They are ubiquitous elements present in almost all eukaryotic genomes. Their number and state of conservation can be a highlight of genome dynamics. We searched all published fungal genomes for LTR-containing retrotransposons, including both complete, functional elements and remnant copies. We identified a total of over 66,000 elements, all of which belong to the Ty1/Copia or Ty3/Gypsy superfamilies. Most of the detected Gypsy elements represent Chromoviridae, i.e. they carry a chromodomain in the pol ORF. We analyzed our data from a genome-ecology perspective, looking at the abundance of various types of LTR TEs in individual genomes and at the highest-copy element from each genome. The TE content is very variable among the analyzed genomes. Some genomes are very scarce in LTR TEs (<50 elements), others demonstrate huge expansions (>8000 elements). The data shows that transposon expansions in fungi usually involve an increase both in the copy number of individual elements and in the number of element types. The majority of the highest-copy TEs from all genomes are Ty3/Gypsy transposons. Phylogenetic analysis of these elements suggests that TE expansions have appeared independently of each other, in distant genomes and at different taxonomical levels. We also analyzed the evolutionary relationships between protein domains encoded by the transposon pol ORF and we found that the protease is the fastest evolving domain whereas reverse transcriptase and RNase H evolve much slower and in correlation with each other

Diabetes, depression and cognitive disorders

The interactions between diabetes and the mind are complex; physical illness increases the risk of a number of psychiatric disorders, while mental illness and its treatment also alter the risks of diabetes and worsen both acute metabolic and long-term outcomes of diabetes.The prevalence of depression is approximately 1.5–2-fold higher in people with diabetes compared with the general population. Approximately 10% of people with diabetes will have a formal diagnosis of depression and around a quarter have significant depressive symptoms. Microvascular and macrovascular complications and treatment with insulin are associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms. The underlying mechanisms are multifactorial and include genetic and environmental factors as well as disease and treatment effects. The presence of depression adversely affects diabetes outcomes; quality of life and glycemic control are worsened, while the rates of microvascular and macrovascular complications and mortality are increased in people with depression. Screening for depression in people with diabetes and prompt treatment, where necessary, are recommended.Diabetes has modest effects on certain aspects of cognition, including general intelligence, psychomotor speed, and mental flexibility, particularly when diagnosed in children under the age of 7 years.Diabetes increases the risk of vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, even after adjustment for traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Approximately 1 in 15 cases of dementia is attributable to diabetes. Insulin directly affects β-amyloid formation. Dementia impedes the person with diabetes’ ability to self-manage their diabetes and mandates a change in glycemic targets and management strategies