Transmission patterns of smallpox: systematic review of natural outbreaks in Europe and North America since World War II

BACKGROUND: Because smallpox (variola major) may be used as a biological weapon, we reviewed outbreaks in post-World War II Europe and North America in order to understand smallpox transmission patterns. METHODS: A systematic review was used to identify papers from the National Library of Medicine, Embase, Biosis, Cochrane Library, Defense Technical Information Center, WorldCat, and reference lists of included publications. Two authors reviewed selected papers for smallpox outbreaks. RESULTS: 51 relevant outbreaks were identified from 1,389 publications. The median for the effective first generation reproduction rate (initial R) was 2 (range 0–38). The majority outbreaks were small (less than 5 cases) and contained within one generation. Outbreaks with few hospitalized patients had low initial R values (median of 1) and were prolonged if not initially recognized (median of 3 generations); outbreaks with mostly hospitalized patients had higher initial R values (median 12) and were shorter (median of 3 generations). Index cases with an atypical presentation of smallpox were less likely to have been diagnosed with smallpox; outbreaks in which the index case was not correctly diagnosed were larger (median of 27.5 cases) and longer (median of 3 generations) compared to outbreaks in which the index case was correctly diagnosed (median of 3 cases and 1 generation). CONCLUSION: Patterns of spread during Smallpox outbreaks varied with circumstances, but early detection and implementation of control measures is a most important influence on the magnitude of outbreaks. The majority of outbreaks studied in Europe and North America were controlled within a few generations if detected early

Content of components and their bioactive antioxidant activity sprouts seeds

Celem pracy było oznaczenie zawartości wybranych związków bioaktywnych i zbadanie właściwości przeciwrodnikowych ekstraktów uzyskanych z pięciu gatunków kiełków brokułu (Brassica oleracea), rzodkiewki (Raphanus sativus), lucerny (Medicago sativa), słonecznika (Helianthus annuus) i fasoli mung (Vigna radiata). W ekstraktach z kiełków oznaczono zawartość polifenoli ogółem, karotenoidów ogółem i witaminy C. Właściwości przeciwrodnikowe ekstraktów zbadano metodami z wykorzystaniem kationo-rodników ABTS, stabilnych rodników DPPH oraz oznaczono ich zdolność do chelatowania jonów żelaza(II). Badane kiełki charakteryzowały się zróżnicowaną zawartością polifenoli ogółem, karotenoidów i witaminy C. Największą aktywnością przeciwrodnikową oraz zawartością polifenoli ogółem, karotenoidów i witaminy C odznaczały się kiełki brokułu, rzodkiewki i słonecznika. Mimo zróżnicowanych wartości badanych wyróżników, wszystkie badane kiełki można uznać za dobre źródło związków bioaktywnych.Seed sprouts are seeds of plants undergo a process of germination, which is a natural source of substances that enhance food and improve its functionality. Their main advantages are: low energy value, digestibility, beneficial nutritional properties and ease of use. Recommended are almost anyone, as an addition to salads, sandwiches, hot dishes and cold snacks, especially during autumn and winter, when consumption of fresh vegetables and fruit drops. Sprouts slow pathogenic processes, working against cancer, "scavenge" free radicals in the body and act as antioxidant. The aim of the study was to determine the content of selected bioactive compounds and investigate antiradical properties of extracts obtained from five species of broccoli sprouts (Brassica oleracea), radish (Raphanus sativus), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and mung bean (Vigna radiata). The study was conducted in hexane and acetone extracts. Statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel 2007 and Statgraphics Centurion XVI. All assays were performed in at least triplicate. As the test assumed an average value determinations. Used in the calculation of statistical p-value less than 0.05 was regarded as statistically insignificant information. The germ extracts was determined polyphenols, carotenoids and vitamin C. Investigated sprouts were characterized by varying the content of polyphenols, carote-noids and vitamin C. The highest total polyphenol content were characterized by radish sprouts and broccoli, respectively 442.3 and 398.6 mg GAE per 100 g of fresh matter. The highest level of carotenoids found in sprouts radishes - 14.3 mg and sunflower - 14.5 mg ß-carotene per 100 g of fresh matter. The highest levels of vitamin C, as much as 116.3 mg per 100 g fresh matter, was observed in radish sprouts. Antiradical properties of the extracts were tested using the methods with ABTS, stable radical DPPH and determined their ability to chelate ion iron(II). Antiradical properties expressed in %. The highest antioxidant activity and the content of total polyphenols, carotenoids and vitamin C were characterized by broccoli sprouts, radishes and sunflower. Stronger antiradical properties in all extracts against DPPH radicals than ABTS cation-radicals were observed. The strongest chelating ability showed alfalfa sprouts (93.1%), however, all of the tested extracts showed chelating ability iron ions(II) above 85%. Although varying levels of all test seedlings can be considered as a good source of bioactive compounds

Quantitative contribution of systemic vascular autoregulation in acute hypertension in conscious dogs.

Experiments were performed in nine conscious dogs to quantitate the contribution of systemic vascular autoregulation to the increases in total peripheral resistance (TPR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) produced by angiotensin II (ANG II), arginine vasopressin (AVP), and norepinephrine (NE). We hypothesized that if autoregulatory vasoconstriction is significant, then the increase in TPR produced by vasoconstrictor infusion will be greater when MAP is controlled at hypertensive values than when the increase in pressure is prevented by controlling MAP at the animal's normotensive value. Each drug was infused at a dose sufficient to increase MAP by 50%. Then, a constant rate of vasoconstrictor infusion was maintained while MAP was controlled at hypertensive or normotensive levels for 15-min periods using a gravity reservoir connected to the left common carotid artery. During AVP infusion, TPR was significantly greater when MAP was controlled at hypertensive than at normotensive values. This autoregulatory-mediated vasoconstriction accounted for approximately three-fourths of the increase in MAP produced by AVP. No significant autoregulatory component was identified for the increases in TPR and MAP produced by ANG II or NE. We conclude that systemic vascular autoregulation is a powerful physiological property that contributes to the hemodynamic response to pressor doses of AVP