Effects of dietary salbutamol on growth and carcass composition in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus Mykiss) (Walbaum) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Physiology) at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Salbutamol, a β2 adrenergic agonist, has been shown to reduce carcass fat and increase muscle mass and improve feed conversion efficiency in pigs. In the present study, the effects of dietary salbutamol at 20 ppm on growth, feed conversion efficiency, carcass recovery, visceral organ weight, and whole carcass composition of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were studied. Rainbow trout (eighteen months old; average initial weight 324.0±0.4 g) were fed either the control or control + 20 ppm salbutamol diet for four weeks in a completely randomized design. Fish were weighed at the start and termination of the study, and records of feed intake were maintained. Carcasses were analyzed for protein, fat and ash at the start and completion of the four weeks feeding period. Dietary salbutamol had no adverse effect on fish mortality, health or feed intake. Dietary salbutamol had no effect (p>0.10) on growth, feed intake or feed conversion efficiency of rainbow trout. Internal organ weights such as liver, heart, gonads and viscero-somatic index and hepato-somatic index were also not affected (p>0.10) by dietary salbutamol. Interestingly, kidney weight was significantly (p<0.01) increased by salbutamol. However, it is unlikely that salbutamol directly increased the kidney weight. Increased metabolic load on kidney and blood flow to the kidney could be reasons for increased kidney weight. Although the final weight and the growth rate were not affected by salbutamol, the carcass recovery was significantly higher (p<0.01) in salbutamol treated trout. Whole carcass protein content of both treated and control fish showed no significant differences and clearly reflected the normal allometric growth and body composition. It was concluded that dietary salbutamol at 20 ppm level had no repartitioning effect in growing rainbow trout. The effects of salbutamol at various doses in more mature rainbow trout need to be studied in future studies

Eutrophication and poultry industry Issues, challenges and opportunities

Eutrophication is the process of excessive growth of algae and cynobacteria due to over enrichmentof the surface waters with mineral nutrients. Eutrophication restricts water use for fisheries, recreation,industry and drinking. Phosphorus (P) is the limiting mineral for the eutropication process. Experiencefrom America, Europe and Austral ia clearly shows that improper land application of poultry litter isamong the main contributors of eutrophication process. Poultry utilizes dietary phosphorus ratherinefficiently, due mainly to high level ofphytate in their diets and, low intrinsic phytase activity both inpoultry and plant materials. Phytates increase the excretion of N and a range of other cations and,thus increases the eutrophic potential of poultry litter. Poultry industry of Sri Lanka expandeddramatically during the last few decades and it has been predicted that the growth will continue.Meanwhile, use of poultry litter as an organic fertilizer is becoming popular, particularly in up countrycropping systems. The, risk of getting water bodies eutrophicated due to the present trend ofindiscriminate land application of poultry litter in up country cropping systems is tremendous. Estimatedminimum annual P output from local poultry industry is around 751.8 metric tonnes. Decreasing the Plevel in faeces through dietary manipulations is probably the most cost-effective and practical approachto reduce the P losses to the environment. In poultry ration formulation, the requirement of P isexpressed as the non-phytate P requirement. No upper limits have been set for the total P level in thediet. This has given the liberty to the feed industry to use poorly digestible plant P sources in the diets.From environmental point of view, it is important to set maximum total P levels for poultry diets.Supplementation of poultry diets with microbial phytases can reduce the faecal P levels by about 30%and also faecal N and other cation levels. Regulatory mechanisms should be imposed to make theuse of phytase compulsory, at least when the total dietary P levels exceed a particular limit. A rangeof chemical and physical means are also available to increase the P utilization in poultry. Both farmersand the feed industry should be encouraged tq adopt those strategies. A maize variety with reduced phytate level has been successfully genetically engineered. Such genetically modified rice varietiesare very much needed because the excretion ofP is greatly increased when poultry diets contain ricebran. The dietary P levels commonly used in industry exceed the most recent NRC recommendationsby about 15%. Many recent researches have shown that the dietary P levels could further be reducedwithout the performance being affected. The poultry feed industry should respond to these newfindings rapidly and reduce the P levels in poultry diets. The dietary P requirement gradually declinesas birds grown and mature. Theoretically, it is possible to prepare a series of diets containing decreasingP levels, and the feeding of such a series of diets as birds grow can reduce the P excretion. Thispaper concludes that the excretion ofP from poultry industry could substantially be reduced throughdietary manipulations and, timely intervention of policy makers, farmers and researchers is of paramountimportance for the sustainability of inland water bodies

RUMINANTS AND GREENHOUSE GASSES SUSTAINABLE FEEDING STRATEGIES TO BALANCING THE ISSUES

Domestic ruminants contribute 16.5 % of the total methane emission to theenvironment and 3.5% of the global warming effect. Methane emission needsto be reduced by 10-20% to stabilize the methane concentration in theatmosphere. Emission of methane from ruminants can be reduced by twoways; reducing per animal emission by efficient fibre digestion and reducingthe number of ruminants by efficient nutrient utilization. Feeding strategiesbased on fossil-fuel-demanding concentrate diets produce more CO2 andconsume voluble natural resources while reducing methane. The most widelyused second feeding strategy uses low quality forages and agro-industrial byproducts. Even though this practice reduces the problems associated with thefirst one, it emits more CH4 due to the deficiencies of many critical nutrientsrequired for efficient microbial activity in the rumen. These critical nutrientsare N, minerals such as P and S, readily available carbohydrates, true proteinsand rumen undegradable proteins. Protozoal activity and low undegradableprotein levels reduce both the quality and quantity of the amino acids andother nutrients absorbed in the small intestine. The composite result of thesecond feeding practice is increased total CH4 emission. Among the solutionsdiscussed in this paper in addressing those problems, tree legumes could playa pivotal role. It is concluded that feeding strategies for ruminants should bebased on materials such as forages and agro-industrial-by products thatconsumes less fossil fuels and natural resources. However, unless theproblems associated with these resources are not properly corrected, thisstrategy would be countered productive

Development of broiler offal silage with molasses

Objective of the present study was to determine the feasibility of ensiling broiler offal (80) withmolasses. Forty two-days old broiler chicks were slaughtered and processed manually. Offal withoutfeathers were cut into small pieces and ensiled in airtight plastic containers for four weeks. Theexperiment followed a completely randomize design in 4*2 factorial arrangement. The treatmentcombinations were four molasses concentrations (5, 15,25 and 35% w/w) and two inoculation levels(0 and 10%). Yoghurt was used as the innoculum. Each treatment combination had five replicates.pH was measured at time 0, 12hrs, 24 hrs, day 3, day 7, day 14, day 21 and day 28 of the ensilingprocess. pH was 4.8 at the beginning of the ensiling process. After 12 hrs, in all treatments pHdropped slightly to around 4.6. The pH at 5% molasses level dropped quickly within a day of ensiling,and was significantly lower than the pH values of other molasses levels. However, pH at 5%molasses rose thereafter, and reached to an undesirable level by day 3. By one week of ensiling, thepH at 15,25 and 35% molasses levels were 4.1,4.2 and 4.2, respectively. Those were the lowest pHvalues observed for the respective molasses concentration. At all of the above three molasses levels,there was a slight pH increase by day 14 of the ensiling. Thereafter pH maintained at a constantlevels of 4.5,4.2 and 4.4 at 15,25 and 35% molasses levels, respectively. Except 5% molasses level,all other three levels of molasses gave typical odour of good silage. Liquefaction of the 80 was poorand thus grinding of the offal before ensiling may be useful. Inoculation had no effect on pH until day3 and, thereafter inoculation increased the pH and thus was detrimental for the ensiling process.. Itwas concluded that 80 could successfully be ensiled with 25% molasses. Inoculation with yoghurtculture had no beneficial effect on ensiling process.

Suitability of some agro-industrial by-products as litter material for poultry Physio-chemical properties

Paddy-husk (PH) based deep litter system is the most popular poultry management system in SriLanka. Physio-chemical properties of PH make it an ideal litter material for poultry keeping. SincePH is increasingly been demanded by other industries, availability of PH for poultry industry has beenrestricted from recent years. Objective of the present study was to screen the physio-chemicalproperties of some commonly available agro-industrial by-products, to be used as alternative littermaterials for poultry. Physio-chemical properties such as dry matter (OM), bulk density (BO), pH,water absorbability (WA) and water releasing capacity (WRC) of seven alternatives such as ricestraw (RS), coir dust (CD), wood shawing;WS, saw dust;SD, tree litter;TL, shredded paper;SP andrefused tea;RT)) were determined and, compared with the respective values of PH. The experimentfollowed a completely randomized design. The OM % of the alternatives tested ranged from 91 %(SO) to 92% (SP). OM contents ofWS and RT were statistically similar to that of PH. However,none ofthe material had either too low or too high OM levels to be disqualified as a litter material. pHvalues of the tested materials were statistically similar and were slightly acidic (mean 6.27; range6.1-6.5). PH had the highest BO (0.09g/cm'). The BOs of CD, SO and RT, though were lower thanPH, the values were not significantly different from that of PH. WA was also statistically differentbetween the materials. CD had the highest (ll 0 I%) WA while RT showed lowest (70%) WA. SO,SP and TL showed statistically similar WA as PH. Materials showed a great variability (from 7.7%for SO to 26.7% for RS) in relation to WRC. PH had 13.6% WRC within 241m. RT had the closestWRC capacity (17.9%) to PH. Materials such as RS, TS, WS and SP showed as high as 25%WRC. When materials were compared for the parameters tested against those of PH, RS and WSwere similar to PH only in relation to two parameters. Being comparable with PH for four parameters,SO was identified as the best alternative for PH. CD, TL, SP and RT were comparable with PH inrelation to three parameters. Since CD had excessive WA (I 10 I%) and very low WRC it can not berecommended further studies. This study concludes that physio-chemical properties of SO, TL, SPand RT are comparable with PH. Field studies involving live poultry are warranted to determine howbirds perform and behave when raised on these litter materials

EFFECT OF GRAZING ON SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES IN INTEGRATED FARMING SOILS.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of grazing on somesoil properties; bulk density (BD), true density, porosity, moisture content(Me) and pH. The effect of long term grazing (&gt;20 yrs) was examined in acoconut - pasture - cattle integrated farming system in Kamburupitiya area.Short term grazing effect was compared with an adjoining coconut plantationpermitting 18 buffaloes to graze for 6 months. Another adjoining ungrazedcoconut farm soil was considered as control. Soil samples were taken fromthe topsoil using a core sampler (v = 98.21 em"). Four replicate samples weretaken three times with 30 days interval and analyzed in triplicates. Data werestatistically analyzed using SAS.Soils collected from the long term integrated farming site had a significantlyhigher (p &lt; 0.05) average pH (5.58) than that of non-integrated sites (4.65).Reduction of acidity may be due to the improvement of soil nutrients viadung, urine and accumulation of litter. It was observed that the soil inintegrated sites were comparatively dark in color. BD of integrated soil(1.15g/cm3) was significantly lower than that of non-integeated soil (21.26%)due to the better ground cover by dominant prostate type herbages comparedto ungrazed soils where erect type herbages were prominent. Soil porosityalso improved due to integration (47.76%) with that of non-integrated soil(43.76%). There was no significant difference observed under the effect ofshort term grazing. A considerable time period may be required to change toimproved soil properties.It is concluded that long term crop-livestock integration could improve thesoil physiochemical properties

EFFECT OF BUFFALO GRAZING ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN A COCONUT-PASTURE-CATTLE INTEGRATED SYSTEM

The effects of long and short-term buffalo grazing on plant species diversityunder coconut were examined. 18 Murrah and Surthi pure and crossbredbuffaloes were allowed to graze 3 hours a month for 6 months (short termgrazing). Herbage from an adjoining coconut plantation was taken as thecontrol. Quadrate sampling was adopted to analyze herbage up to specieslevel and four random samples were taken at each event.The Shannon diversity Index (H), species richness and evenness werecalculated for each treatment.Results showed that the diversity index and evenness in the undisturbedhabitat (ungrazed coconut plantation) were 2.176 and 0.6679 respectively andwere much higher than highly disturbed habitat (grazed plantation) where thesame values were 0.4.747 and 0.2160. The short term grazing effect showedan intermediate results. In the ungrazed site there were greater number ofplant species and more equitable the individuals in the community weredistributed. Long term grazed coconut plantation had only 9 species and over80% of the individuals belong to one species; Carpet grass (Axonopus affinis)the most common species in a grazing land. Grazing pressure was favorableto dominate prostate type plants. It was shown that grazing pressure whethershort term or long term changed the abundance of plant species.It is concluded that different levels of disturbance have different effects onplant species diversity

Behaviour of cattle in an agro-forestry system

Objective of the present study was to understand the behaviour of dairy cattle tethered underagro-forcstry systems. Three genetically uncharacterized, indigenous, non-lactating cows and twobulls (mean live weight 199±29) were tethered close to a water stream in an agro-forestry system.The vegetation of the agro-forestry system comprised of teak, coconut, mahogany and shrubs. Animalshad enough foraging materials around the place they were tethered. One observer was assigned toeach animal. The behaviour of the animals was observed for five hours from 1000 1500 hrs. Themean temperature and the relative humidity of day of the study were 28°C and 79% respectively.Frequency and the duration of the time spent on nine behaviours were recorded. The behaviouralactivities studied were drinking, feeding (ground level and upper level), lying, standing, walking,urination, defecation, vocal ization and interactions (cattle-cattle and cattle-other an irnals ). Feedingwas the most prominent behaviour of the animals. The time spent on feeding and the frequency offeeding during the 300 minutes study period were 252 min and 23, respectively and thus the feedingbehaviour accounted for 84% of the total time budget. The frequency (15) and the time spent onground level grazing (234 min) were significantly higher (p&lt;O.OOI) than the frequencies and the timespent on upper level feeding. Though not statistically significant, animals spent more time on standing(18.9min or 6.3% of the total time) than on Laying (14.6 min or 5% of the total time). The frequencyof standing (5) was also significantly (p&lt;O.OO I) higher than that oflying (I). May be due to tethering,cattle spent less time (8.3 minutes or 2.7% of the total time) on walking. The frequency of drinking(2) and the time spent on drinking were (3 min or 1% of the total time) unexpectedly low. Cattledefecated and urinated twice during the five- hour study period. Vocalization was the least prominentbehavioural activity. It is concluded that cattle highly engage with feeding particularly, on groundlevel when they are tethered under agro-forestry systems. Further researches are needed to determineas to why the drinking behaviour is suppressed when tethered in agro-forestry systems

Behaviour of cattle in an agro-forestry system

Objective of the present study was to understand the behaviour of dairy cattle tethered underagro-forcstry systems. Three genetically uncharacterized, indigenous, non-lactating cows and twobulls (mean live weight 199±29) were tethered close to a water stream in an agro-forestry system.The vegetation of the agro-forestry system comprised of teak, coconut, mahogany and shrubs. Animalshad enough foraging materials around the place they were tethered. One observer was assigned toeach animal. The behaviour of the animals was observed for five hours from 1000 1500 hrs. Themean temperature and the relative humidity of day of the study were 28°C and 79% respectively.Frequency and the duration of the time spent on nine behaviours were recorded. The behaviouralactivities studied were drinking, feeding (ground level and upper level), lying, standing, walking,urination, defecation, vocal ization and interactions (cattle-cattle and cattle-other an irnals ). Feedingwas the most prominent behaviour of the animals. The time spent on feeding and the frequency offeeding during the 300 minutes study period were 252 min and 23, respectively and thus the feedingbehaviour accounted for 84% of the total time budget. The frequency (15) and the time spent onground level grazing (234 min) were significantly higher (p&lt;O.OOI) than the frequencies and the timespent on upper level feeding. Though not statistically significant, animals spent more time on standing(18.9min or 6.3% of the total time) than on Laying (14.6 min or 5% of the total time). The frequencyof standing (5) was also significantly (p&lt;O.OO I) higher than that oflying (I). May be due to tethering,cattle spent less time (8.3 minutes or 2.7% of the total time) on walking. The frequency of drinking(2) and the time spent on drinking were (3 min or 1% of the total time) unexpectedly low. Cattledefecated and urinated twice during the five- hour study period. Vocalization was the least prominentbehavioural activity. It is concluded that cattle highly engage with feeding particularly, on groundlevel when they are tethered under agro-forestry systems. Further researches are needed to determineas to why the drinking behaviour is suppressed when tethered in agro-forestry systems

Climate change litigation: a review of research on courts and litigants in climate government

Studies of climate change litigation have proliferated over the past two decades, as lawsuits across the world increasingly bring policy debates about climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as climate change‐related loss and damage to the attention of courts. We systematically identify 130 articles on climate change litigation published in English in the law and social sciences between 2000 and 2018 to identify research trajectories. In addition to a budding interdisciplinarity in scholarly interest in climate change litigation we also document a growing understanding of the full spectrum of actors involved and implicated in climate lawsuits and the range of motivations and/or strategic imperatives underpinning their engagement with the law. Situating this within the broader academic literature on the topic we then highlight a number of cutting edge trends and opportunities for future research. Four emerging themes are explored in detail: the relationship between litigation and governance; how time and scale feature in climate litigation; the role of science; and what has been coined the “human rights turn” in climate change litigation. We highlight the limits of existing work and the need for future research—not limited to legal scholarship—to evaluate the impact of both regulatory and anti‐regulatory climate‐related lawsuits, and to explore a wider set of jurisdictions, actors and themes. Addressing these issues and questions will help to develop a deeper understanding of the conditions under which litigation will strengthen or undermine climate governance. This article is categorized under: Policy and Governance > Multilevel and Transnational Climate Change Governanc