CONTROVERSIES ON THE BEGINNING OF HUMAN LIFE – SCIENCE AND RELIGIONS CLOSER AND CLOSER

One of the most controversial topics in modern bioethics, science, and philosophy is the beginning of individual human life. In the seemingly endless debate, strongly stimulated by recent technologic advances in human reproduction, a synthesis between scientific data and hypothesis, philosophical thought, and issues of humanities has become a necessity to deal with ethical, juridical, and social problems. Furthermore, in this field there is a temptation to ask science to choose between opinions and beliefs, which neutralize one another. The question of when human life begins requires the essential aid of different forms of knowledge. Here we become involved in the juncture between science and religion, which needs to be carefully explored

POVERTY AS AN INFLUENTIAL FACTOR FOR ILL PERINATAL HEALTH

SAŽETAK. Siromaštvo je jedan od najutjecajnijih činitelja za bolesno zdravstvo, a bolesno zdravstvo u začaranom krugu može dovesti do siromaštva. Dokazano je da je edukacija najbolji način da se ovaj krug prekine. Dva su načina što povezuju siromaštvo sa zdravljem. Bolest smanjuje sposobnost stjecanja novih znanja i kvalitetu življenja, ima negativan utjecaj na produktivnost i iscrpljuje obiteljske zalihe. Siromašni su izloženiji rizičnim činiteljima okoliša i manje pripravni da se njima bore. Budući da su manje informirani o prednostima zdravog življenja, te da im je teže dostupna kvalitetna zdravstvena skrb, izloženi su većem riziku od obolijevanja i oštećenja. Majčinski, dojenački i mortalitet djece najbolje ilustriraju najveće razlike između bogatih i siromašnih u suvremenom svijetu. U svijetu perinatalno umire 7 do 8 milijuna djece, ali još uvijek ne znamo koliko ih je mrtvorođeno i koliko je doista ranih neonatalnih smrti. U mnogim slučajevima porod dojenčeta koje ubrzo umre ne zabilježi se niti pribraja. Premda se stvarni uzroci smrti razlikuju od zemlje do zemlje, problem je poprilično jednoznačan: nedostatak primjerene i kvalitetne skrbi udružen sa siromaštvom.Poverty is one of the most influential factors for ill health, and ill health – in a vicious cycle – can lead to poverty. Education has proven to be a critical strategy to break this cycle. There is a two-way link between poverty and health. Illness impairs learning ability and quality of life, has a negative impact on productivity, and drains family savings. Poor people are more exposed to environmental risks (poor sanitation, unhealthy food, violence, and natural disasters) and less prepared to cope with them. Because they are also less informed about the benefits of healthy lifestyles, and have less access to them as well as to quality health care, they are at greater risk of illness and disability. Maternal, infant and child mortality illustrate the largest gaps between the rich and the poor in today’s world. There are between 7 and 8 million perinatal deaths, but we do not know exactly how many are stillbirths and how many are early neonatal deaths. In many cases, births of infants who die soon after birth are neither recorded nor counted. Although exact medical causes in countries may differ, the problem is simple: the common denominator for those deaths is the lack of appropriate and quality services, confounded by poverty

WISSENSCHAFT UND RELIGIONEN ÜBER DEN BEGINN DES LEBENS

¬Život ne uključuje samo oblike u kojima postoji danas; on obuhvaća i nekadašnje primitivne, kao i sve buduće oblike postojanja. Život utjelovljuju živa bića, a ona imaju svoju osobnost, sposobnost autoregulacije i razmnožavanja. Neki bioetičari vjeruju da ljudski život u potpunosti započinje tek s razvojem moždanih funkcija, koje se mogu zabilježiti EEG–om otprilike 6 tjedana nakon oplodnje. Osnovna poteškoća koja se javlja kod ovakve definicije je da moždana smrt označava završetak ljudskog života, što nije sporno. Na pitanje kada započinje ljudsko biće, moglo bi se odgovoriti samo me|usobnim povezivanjem spoznaja povijesti, religije, filozofije i medicine. Nije lako odrediti gdje treba povući finu crtu izme|u kompetencije znanosti i metafizike. To velikim dijelom ovisi o čovjekovom temeljnom filozofskom stajalištu. Tek u novije doba velika većina znanstvenika i poneki teolog shvaćaju da su znanstvene i religiozne »istine« komplementarne i time samo metodološki neovisne. Znanost se razlikuje od religije po tome što se njezine istine mogu i moraju eksperimentalno verificirati, a njezina se metoda spoznaje može naučiti. Religija je postojala prije znanosti, ali znanost nije produženje religije. Svaka mora zadržati svoja načela, svoje različite interpretacije i svoje vlastite zaključke.Life does not only include forms in which it exists today; it includes also the former primitive as well as all future forms of existence. Life is represented by living creatures, and they have their individuality, the capacity of self–regulation, and procreation. Some bioethicists believe that human life completely begins only with the development of brain functions, which can be recorded by EEG some 6 weeks after the fertilization. The basic difficulty with such a definition lies in the fact that a brain death marks the end of human life, which is not debatable at all. The question about the beginning of human being can only be answered by a mutual combination of historical, religious, philosophical and medical conceptions. It is not easy to draw a fine dividing line between competences of science and metaphysics. For a good part it depends on an individual\u27s basic philosophical atittude. Only in recent times the great many of scientists and some theologians have conceived that scientific and religious “truths” are complementary and thus only methodologically independent from each other. Science differs from religion in so far as its truths can and must be experimentally verifiable, and its methods of perception can be learnt. Religion existed before science, yet science is not an extension of religion. Each of them should retain its own principles, different interpretations and its own conclusions.Das Leben beinhaltet nicht nur die Formen, in denen es nur heute besteht; es schließt auch einstige primitive sowie alle künftigen Existenzformen ein. Das Leben wird durch Lebewesen verkörpert, und sie haben ihre Individualität, die Fähigkeit der Selbstregelung und Vermehrung. Einige Bioethiker glauben, daß das menschliche Leben erst mit der Entwicklung der Gehirnfunktionen anfängt, die sich durch EEG etwa 6 Wochen nach der Befruchtung erkennen lassen. Die wichtigste Schwierigkeit bei dieser Definition liegt darin, daß der Gehirntod das Ende des menschlichen Lebens bedeutet, was unumstritten ist. Die Frage nach dem Beginn des menschlichen Lebens könnte nur durch eine wechselseitige Verknüpfung von Erkenntnissen aus der Geschichte, Religion, Philosophie und Medizin beantwortet werden. Es ist nicht leicht festzustellen, wo die feine Grenzlinie zwischen den Kompetenzen der Wissenschaften und der Metaphysik zu ziehen ist. Dies hängt wiederum von der grundlegenden philosophischen Einstellung des Menschen ab. Erst in neuerer Zeit erkennen die meisten Wissenschaftler und einige Theologen, daß wissenschaftliche und religiöse “Wahrheiten” komplementär und dadurch nur methodologisch voneinander unabhängig sind. Die Wissenschaft unterscheidet sich von der Religion gerade dadurch, daß ihre Wahrheiten experimental verifiziert werden können und müssen, und daß ihre Methodologie gelernt werden kann. Die Religion gab es vor der Wissenschaft, aber die Wissenschaft ist keine Verlängerung der Religion. Beide müssen ihre eigenen Interpretationsarten und Schlüsse bewahren

MEDIZINISCH–ETHISCHE ZWEIFEL IN DER ERFORSCHUNG DER FRÜHEN EMBRYONEN

Istraživanja na ljudskim preembrijima godinama su okružena etičkim pitanjima. Ta pitanja značajna su zbog potencijalne koristi koju bi donijela i pratećeg etičkog prihvaćanja ili odbijanja. Američki koledž opstetričara i ginekologa nedavno je objavio vlastite smjernice što takva istraživanja dopuštaju, ali u okviru etičkih normi. Te smjernice uvažavaju preembrij, ali ne na istoj razini kao kod odraslih osoba. U ovom trenutku značajno je da liječnici i istraživači budu svjesni medicinskih i etičkih okolnosti, što se izravno uključuju u kompleksnu problematiku istraživanja preembrija. Ovaj rad želi prikazati raspoložive činjenice iz suvremene embriologije kao i etičke smjernice za dalja istraživanja.Research on the preembryo has been surrounded with ethical questions for many years. These questions remain important because of the potential benefits to be gained from the research and the ongoing urgency of the ethical concerns both for and against it. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Ethics has offered a position that approves preembryo research but limits it according to ethical guidelines. This position advocates treatment of the preembryo with respect but not the same level of respects as is given to human persons. It is important to public discourse and to the practice of responsible medicine that physicians become aware of the medical and ethical issues involved in the complex area of preembryo research. This paper aims to present relevant considerations from the findings of contemporary embryology and to propose ethical guidelines for research.Die Erforschungen der menschlichen Präembryonen sind jahrelang von ethischen Fragen umgeben. Diese Fragen sind wichtig sowohl wegen des potentiellen Nutzens, den sie bringen Würden, als auch wegen der begleitenden ethischen Annahme oder Abweisung. Das americhanische college der Obstetriker und Gynäokologen hat neulich im Rahmen der ethischen Normen eigene Richtungslinien darüber veröffentlicht was erlaubt ist, und wasnicht. Diese Richtungslinien berücksichtigen den Präembryo, aber nicht auf der gleichen Ebene wie bei erwachsenen Personen. In diesem moment ist es wichting, daß sich die Ärzte und Forscher der medizinischen und ethischen Umstände bewußt sind, die direkt in die komplexe Problematik der Erforschung der Präembryonen eingeschloßen sind. Diese Arbeit möchte alle zur Verfügung stehende Tatsachen aus dem heutigen Stand der Embryologie darstellen, sowie ethische Richtungslinien für weitere Forschungen