Anthropogenic Decline of Ecosystem Services Threatens the Integrity of the Unique Hyrcanian (Caspian) Forests in Northern Iran

The unique Hyrcanian (Caspian) forests of northern Iran provide vital ecosystem services for local and global communities. We assess the status and trends of key ecosystem services in this region where native forest conversion has accelerated to make way for housing and farm development. This is a mountainous forested area that is valuable for both conservation and multiple human uses including recreation and farming. It contains globally significant natural habitats for in situ conservation of biological diversity. A rapid, qualitative, and participatory approach was used including interviews with local households and experts in combination with assessment of land use/cover remote sensing data to identify and map priority ecosystem services in the Geographic Information System (GIS). Based on the interests of the beneficiaries, eight priority services (food production, water supply, raw materials, soil conservation, water regulation, climate regulation, biodiversity, and recreation) were identified and mapped. The results indicate the current typical spatial distribution of the provided services based on structural characteristics of the study landscape and their changing trends through a comparison of past, present and future land use, and land cover. Although food production and recreation have greatly increased in recent decades, the other services, in particular timber production, biodiversity, and water purification and supply are being gradually lost. The results of this study and of others elsewhere should raise awareness of ecosystem service status and trends and the value of examining these since they provide much of the information to inform natural resources policy and decision making. The declines in supply of key ecosystem services both within and outside the protected area are creating conflicts within communities as well as impacting on the integrity of the area and careful planning and conservation is required to provide win-win opportunities

Assessing the recreational value of Dareh Si Castle Park in Arasbaran forests using Contingent Valuation Method (CVM)

Dareh Si is a forested valley located 3 km from southwest of Kalaybar county within the Arasbaran forests in the north of East Azerbayijan Province. High Biodiversity and ecological conditions that generally govern Arasbaran area had turned those forests to a unique biogeographic area of Iran. In this study, the recreational value of the Dareh Si Castle Park (as the minimum recreational value of Arasbaran forests) was estimated using Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). Questionnaires were used to collect the required information. Descriptive statistics of variables were introduced, followed by providing results of LOGIT models and expected WTP values. Analytical results indicated that for each visit to the park the visitors would like to pay 3908 IRR. Annually, 275000 individuals visit the park, which results in the estimated recreational value of 1.074 billion IRR when multiplied by the WTP (The base year was 2007). This was updated based on Consumer Price Indexes (CPI) announced by Central Bank of Islamic Republic of Iran in 2014, accounting for 4.14 billion IRR

Evaluating the Role of Land Use in the Provision of Soil Retention Ecosystem Service (Case Study: Semnan Province)

Introduction: Soil resources play an important role in providing the necessary material goods for humans and other organisms and also deliver multiple ecosystem services that are essential for life on earth. They have also served for a long time as an important green infrastructure in protecting agricultural and forest landscapes by providing plants a foothold for their roots and holding the necessary nutrients for their growth. In addition, soils can provide various ecosystem services such as contaminant immobilization, rainwater control, carbon sequestration, and habitat provision that are directly beneficial for humans. Services provided by ecosystems for humans are called ecosystem services. Soil retention, which refers to the potential of ecosystems for controlling soil erosion and conserving soil, is classified in the class of regulating services.    Materials and Methods: The InVEST Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) model was used in InVEST Software to quantify soil retention and erosion. The required inputs for implementing this model include land use maps, K-factor (soil erodibility), R-factor (rain erosivity), C-factor (land use and land cover or LU/LC), P-factor (support practices), DEM (digital elevation model), and the biophysical table. Results: Based on the results, the potential of soil loss and sediment transport in the study area ranged from zero to 248.18 t/pixel and from zero to 57.25 tons per pixel, respectively. Soil retention is also estimated in a range from zero to 124.85 tons per pixel in the studied area. The largest amount of soil loss happened in sub-basin number 14 with 13716400 t/year and the smallest in sub-basin number 4 with 416594 t/year. Most of the ecosystem service of soil retention belonged to sub-basin number 13 with 4304414 t/ha/ year and the least to sub-basin number 4 with 5645 tons/ha/year. Discussion: The dense forests in the northernmost part of Semnan Province provide the most part of the ecosystem service of soil retention with more than 36 t/ha and the desert areas, the salt lake, and the salt marsh the least. Based on this, the province's forests, including dense, semi-dense, sparse and thin forests, contribute to the maintenance of soil in the province by a total of 4269166 tons per year. Also, good pastures maintain more than 18 tons per hectare of the province's soil every year, and the total function of soil maintenance by all types of pastures in the province, including good, medium and poor pastures, is 9395160 tons per year. Since the area covered by the pastures is 18 times more than that by the forests, we can say that most of the ecosystem service of soil retention is provided by the pastures due to the geographical distribution of this service in the province, despite the fact that forests are more capable in soil conservation than pastures. The orchards and rainfed agricultural land rank third and fourth, respectively, in soil retention with 7.86 and 2.15 tons of soil/ha, respectively. However, man-made land uses such as urban areas decrease this ecosystem service because they are usually accompanied by removing or reducing the vegetation. The urban areas are located in the northern part of the study area, and they have negative impacts on this ecosystem service. Therefore, protection of the forest and rangeland covers in the province is vitally important for the continued conservation of the ecosystem service of soil retention

Modelling Impact of Urban Expansion on Ecosystem Services: A Scenario-Based Approach in a Mixed Natural/Urbanised Landscape

The present study aims at predicting future land use/land cover (LULC) and quantifying and mapping the ecosystem services (ESs) of water yield, outdoor recreation opportunity and food production in current (here, 2017) and future landscapes in Northern Iran, using the InVEST, Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and yield models. To that end, two LULC scenarios known as business as usual (BAU) and protection-based (PB) plan were applied for 2028, using the Markov Artificial Neural Network and Multi-objective land allocation (MOLA) models. The results show that rapid urbanisation, caused by the expansion of human settlements and industrial areas, has led to a decline in the ESs in the region. Compared to the ESs in 2017, the service of water yield increases as urban expansion increases, whereas food production and recreation services decrease as urban expansion increases, under the BAU scenario. On the other hand, in the PB scenario, relatively better conditions can be observed for all three ESs. Considering that the ecological structures of this region have been severely affected by rapid urban expansion, the results of this research will be useful for maintaining the existing ESs and can greatly affect planning and decision-making regarding future development towards urban sustainability.</jats:p

Modelling Impact of Urban Expansion on Ecosystem Services: A Scenario-Based Approach in a Mixed Natural/Urbanised Landscape

The present study aims at predicting future land use/land cover (LULC) and quantifying and mapping the ecosystem services (ESs) of water yield, outdoor recreation opportunity and food production in current (here, 2017) and future landscapes in Northern Iran, using the InVEST, Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and yield models. To that end, two LULC scenarios known as business as usual (BAU) and protection-based (PB) plan were applied for 2028, using the Markov Artificial Neural Network and Multi-objective land allocation (MOLA) models. The results show that rapid urbanisation, caused by the expansion of human settlements and industrial areas, has led to a decline in the ESs in the region. Compared to the ESs in 2017, the service of water yield increases as urban expansion increases, whereas food production and recreation services decrease as urban expansion increases, under the BAU scenario. On the other hand, in the PB scenario, relatively better conditions can be observed for all three ESs. Considering that the ecological structures of this region have been severely affected by rapid urban expansion, the results of this research will be useful for maintaining the existing ESs and can greatly affect planning and decision-making regarding future development towards urban sustainability